Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering

Professor Antonio Luque, Instituto de Energia Solar, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid Antonio Luque became a full professor of Electronics at the University of Madrid in 1970 and soon became head of the Semiconductor Laboratory (now the Institute for Solar Energy). Isofoton, the 8th world producer of solar cell, was founded on Antonio's invention of the Bifacial Cell. He has worked with BP Solar and British Petroleum (the EUCLIDES program) on solar concentrators to the point where it is near to commercial viability, and has received many national and international prizes and rewards during the course of his career, including the National Prize for Technological Research and the Jaime I medal. Professor Luque is also the author of numerous publications. Dr Steven Hegedus, Institute of Energy Conversion, University of Delaware, USA Steven Hegedus was appointed Fellow in the University of Delaware's Center for Energy and Environmental Policy in 2005. He has worked as a Semiconductor Device Engineer for IBM Corporation in New York, modeling, testing and designing analog and digital integrated circuit devices. At IBM he designed and tested a new stress-independent integrated Hall effect sensor. He later became a research associate at the Institute of Energy Conversion, University of Delaware. Dr Hegedus is a Professional member of the American Solar Energy Society and a Lifetime member of the American Physical Society, as well as a member of the Union of Concerned Scientists.

About the Editors. List of Contributors.

Preface to the 2nd Edition.

1 Achievements and Challenges of Solar Electricity from Photovoltaics  (Steven Hegedus and Antonio Luque).

1.1 The Big Picture.

1.2 What is Photovoltaics?

1.3 Photovoltaics Today.

1.4 The Great Challenge.

1.5 Trends in Technology.

1.6 Conclusions.

2 The Role of Policy in PV Industry Growth: Past, Present and Future (John Byrne and Lado Kurdgelashvili).

2.1 Introduction.

2.2 Policy Review of Selected Countries.

2.3 Policy Impact on PV Market Development.

2.4 Future PV Market Growth Scenarios.

2.5 Toward a Sustainable Future.

3 The Physics of the Solar Cell (Jeffery L. Gray).

3.1 Introduction.

3.2 Fundamental Properties of Semiconductors.

3.3 Solar Cell Fundamentals.

3.4 Additional Topics.

3.5 Summary.

4 Theoretical Limits of Photovoltaic Conversion and New-generation Solar Cells (Antonio Luque and Antonio Martı).

4.1 Introduction.

4.2 Thermodynamic Background.

4.3 Photovoltaic Converters.

4.4 The Technical Efficiency Limit for Solar Converters.

4.5 Very-high-efficiency Concepts.

4.6 Conclusions.

5 Solar Grade Silicon Feedstock (Bruno Ceccaroli and Otto Lohne).

5.1 Introduction.

5.2 Silicon.

5.3 Production of Silicon Metal/Metallurgical Grade Silicon.

5.4 Production of Polysilicon/Silicon of Electronic and Photovoltaic Grade.

5.5 Current Silicon Feedstock to Solar Cells.

5.6 Requirements of Silicon for Crystalline Solar Cells.

5.7 Routes to Solar Grade Silicon.

5.8 Conclusions.

6 Bulk Crystal Growth and Wafering for PV (Hugo Rodriguez, Ismael Guerrero, Wolfgang Koch, Arthur L. Endros, Dieter Franke, Christian Haßler, Juris P. Kalejs and H. J. Moller).

6.1 Introduction.

6.2 Bulk Monocrystalline Material.

6.3 Bulk Multicrystalline Silicon.

6.4 Wafering.

6.5 Silicon Ribbon and Foil Production.

6.6 Numerical Simulations of Crystal Growth Techniques.

6.7 Conclusions.

7 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells and Modules (Ignacio Tobıas, Carlos del Ca˜nizo and Jesus Alonso).

7.1 Introduction.

7.2 Crystalline Silicon as a Photovoltaic Material.

7.3 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells.

7.4 Manufacturing Process.

7.5 Variations to the Basic Process.

7.6 Other Industrial Approaches.

7.7 Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Modules.

7.8 Electrical and Optical Performance of Modules.

7.9 Field Performance of Modules.

7.10 Conclusions.

8 High-efficiency III–V Multijunction Solar Cells (D. J. Friedman, J. M. Olson and Sarah Kurtz).

8.1 Introduction.

8.2 Applications.

8.3 Physics of III–V Multijunction and Single-junction Solar Cells.

8.4 Cell Configuration.

8.5 Computation of Series-connected Device Performance.

8.6 Materials Issues Related to GaInP/GaAs/Ge Solar Cells.

8.7 Epilayer Characterization and Other Diagnostic Techniques.

8.8 Reliability and Degradation.

8.9 Future-generation Solar Cells.

8.10 Summary.

9 Space Solar Cells and Arrays (Sheila Bailey and Ryne Raffaelle).

9.1 The History of Space Solar Cells.

9.2 The Challenge for Space Solar Cells.

9.3 Silicon Solar Cells.

9.4 III–V Solar Cells.

9.5 Space Solar Arrays.

9.6 Future Cell and Array Possibilities.

9.7 Power System Figures of Merit.

9.8 Summary.

10 Photovoltaic Concentrators (Gabriel Sala and Ignacio Anton).

10.1 What is the Aim of Photovoltaic Concentration and What Does it Do?

10.2 Objectives, Limitations and Opportunities.

10.3 Typical Concentrators: an Attempt at Classification.

10.4 Concentration Optics: Thermodynamic Limits.

10.5 Factors of Merit for Concentrators in Relation to the Optics.

10.6 Photovoltaic Concentration Modules and Assemblies.

10.7 Tracking for Concentrator Systems.

10.8 Measurements of Cells, Modules and Photovoltaic Systems in Concentration.

10.9 Summary.

11 Crystalline Silicon Thin-Film Solar Cells via High-temperature and Intermediate-temperature Approaches (Armin G. Aberle and Per I. Widenborg).

11.1 Introduction.

11.2 Modelling.

11.4 Crystalline Silicon Thin-Film Solar Cells on Intermediate-T Foreign Supporting Materials.

11.5 Conclusions.

12 Amorphous Silicon-based Solar Cells (Eric A. Schiff, Steven Hegedus and Xunming Deng).

12.1 Overview.

12.2 Atomic and Electronic Structure of Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon.

12.3 Depositing Amorphous Silicon.

12.4 Understanding a-Si pin Cells.

12.5 Multijunction Solar Cells.

12.6 Module Manufacturing.

12.7 Conclusions and Future Projections.

13 Cu(InGa)Se2 Solar Cells (William N. Shafarman, Susanne Siebentritt and Lars Stolt).

13.1 Introduction.

13.2 Material Properties.

13.3 Deposition Methods.

13.4 Junction and Device Formation.

13.5 Device Operation.

13.6 Manufacturing Issues.

13.7 The Cu(InGa)Se2 Outlook.

14 Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells (Brian E. McCandless and James R. Sites).

14.1 Introduction.

14.2 Historical Development.

14.3 CdTe Properties.

14.4 CdTe Film Deposition.

14.5 CdTe Thin Film Solar Cells.

14.6 CdTe Modules.

14.7 Future of CdTe-based Solar Cells.

15 Dye-sensitized Solar Cells (Kohjiro Hara and Shogo Mori).

15.1 Introduction.

15.2 Operating Mechanism of DSSC.

15.3 Materials.

15.4 Performance of Highly Efficient DSSCs.

15.5 Electron-transfer Processes.

15.6 New Materials.

15.7 Stability.

15.8 Approach to Commercialization.

15.9 Summary and Prospects.

16 Sunlight Energy Conversion Via Organics (Sam-Shajing Sun and Hugh O'Neill).

16.1 Principles of Organic and Polymeric Photovoltaics.

16.2 Evolution and Types of Organic and Polymeric Solar Cells.

16.3 Organic and Polymeric Solar Cell Fabrication and Characterization.

16.4 Natural Photosynthetic Sunlight Energy Conversion Systems.

16.5 Artificial Photosynthetic Systems.

16.6 Artificial Reaction Centers.

16.7 Towards Device Architectures.

16.8 Summary and Future Perspectives.

17 Transparent Conducting Oxides for Photovoltaics (Alan E. Delahoy and Sheyu Guo).

17.1 Introduction.

17.2 Survey of Materials.

17.3 Deposition Methods.

17.4 TCO Theory and Modeling: Electrical and Optical Properties and their Impact on Module Performance.

17.5 Principal Materials and Issues for Thin Film and Wafer-based PV.

17.6 Textured Films.

17.7 Measurements and Characterization Methods.

17.8 TCO Stability.

17.9 Recent Developments and Prospects.

18 Measurement and Characterization of Solar Cells and Modules (Keith Emery).

18.1 Introduction.

18.2 Rating PV Performance.

18.3 Current–Voltage Measurements.

18.4 Spectral Responsivity Measurements.

18.5 Module Qualification and Certification.

18.6 Summary.

19 PV Systems (Charles M. Whitaker, Timothy U. Townsend, Anat Razon, Raymond M. Hudson and Xavier Vallve).

19.1 Introduction: There is gold at the end of the rainbow.

19.2 System Types.

19.3 Exemplary PV Systems.

19.4 Ratings.

19.5 Key System Components.

19.6 System Design Considerations.

19.7 System Design.

19.8 Installation.

19.9 Operation and Maintenance/Monitoring.

19.10 Removal, Recycling and Remediation.

19.11 Examples.

20 Electrochemical Storage for Photovoltaics (Dirk Uwe Sauer).

20.1 Introduction.

20.2 General Concept of Electrochemical Batteries.

20.3 Typical Operation Conditions of Batteries in PV Applications.

20.4 Secondary Electrochemical Accumulators with Internal Storage.

20.5 Secondary Electrochemical Battery Systems with External Storage.

20.6 Investment and Lifetime Cost Considerations.

20.7 Conclusion.

21 Power Conditioning for Photovoltaic Power Systems (Heribert Schmidt, Bruno Burger and Jurgen Schmid).

21.1 Charge Controllers and Monitoring Systems for Batteries in PV Power Systems.

21.2 Inverters.

22 Energy Collected and Delivered by PV Modules (Eduardo Lorenzo).

22.1 Introduction.

22.2 Movement between Sun and Earth.

22.3 Solar Radiation Components.

22.4 Solar Radiation Data and Uncertainty.

22.5 Radiation on Inclined Surfaces.

22.6 Diurnal Variations of the Ambient Temperature.

22.7 Effects of the Angle of Incidence and of Dirt.

22.8 Some Calculation Tools.

22.9 Irradiation on Most Widely Studied Surfaces.

22.10 PV Generator Behaviour Under Real Operation Conditions.

22.11 Reliability and Sizing of Stand-alone PV Systems.

22.12 The Case of Solar Home Systems.

22.13 Energy Yield of Grid-connected PV Systems.

22.14 Conclusions.

23 PV in Architecture (Tjerk H. Reijenga and Henk F. Kaan).

23.1 Introduction.

23.2 PV in Architecture.

23.3 BIPV Basics.

23.4 Steps in the Design Process with PV.

23.5 Concluding Remarks.

24 Photovoltaics and Development (Jorge M. Huacuz, Jaime Agredano and Lalith Gunaratne).

24.1 Electricity and Development.

24.2 Breaking the Chains of Underdevelopment.

24.3 The PV Alternative.

24.4 Examples of PV Rural Electrification.

24.5 Toward a New Paradigm for Rural Electrification.

References.

Index.