Reformation Thought

Alister E. McGrath is Andreas Idreos Professor of Science and Religion, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Oxford, UK. He is an acclaimed scholar, theologian, intellectual historian, lecturer, and author. He has written several bestselling books, and a number of popular textbooks on theology, including The Intellectual Origins of the European Reformation and Luther’s Theology of the Cross. 

Preface to the Fifth Edition x

How to Use This Book xiii

1 Introducing the Age of Reformation 1

The Concept of “Reformation” 2

The Lutheran Reformation 4

The Reformed Church 5

The Radical Reformation (Anabaptism) 7

The Catholic Reformation 9

The English Reformation 10

The Call for Reform 12

The Growth of Anti-Clericalism 12

The Need for Doctrinal Reform 14

A Failed Attempt to Reform: Conciliarism 16

The Growth of Regional and National Power 16

The Religious Agendas of the Reformers 17

For Further Reading 19

Part One: The Context of the Thought of the Reformation 21

2 A Changing World: The Cultural Backdrop to the Reformation 23

The Rise of the Individual: The Demand for Personal Relevance 24

Alternative Theologies: Folk Religion and Magic 26

Religious Democratization: The Use of the Vernacular 28

The Importance of Printing 30

The Urban Context of the Reformation 32

Sacralizing the Secular: Christianity as a World-Engaging Faith 36

Doctrinal Confusion: A Crisis of Authority Within the Church 38

Receptivity Toward the Reformation: The Case of Lollardy 40

For Further Reading 41

3 Renaissance Humanism and the Reformation 43

The Concept of “Renaissance” 44

The Concept of “Humanism” 45

Classical Scholarship and Philology 46

The New Philosophy of the Renaissance? 47

Paul Oskar Kristeller’s View of Humanism 49

Ad fontes: Returning to the Fountainhead 50

Northern European Humanism 52

The Northern European Reception of the Italian Renaissance 52

The Ideals of Northern European Humanism 53

Eastern Swiss Humanism 54

French Legal Humanism 55

Erasmus of Rotterdam 56

Erasmus’ Critique of the Vulgate Text of the New Testament 59

Erasmus’ Editions of Patristic Texts 61

Networks of Influence: Erasmus’ Circle 62

Humanism and the Reformation: An Evaluation 63

Humanism and the Hebrew Bible 64

Humanism and the Swiss Reformation 65

Humanism and the Wittenberg Reformation 67

Tensions Between Reformation and Humanism 68

For Further Reading 71

4 Scholasticism and the Reformation 74

The Characteristics of Scholasticism 75

Scholasticism and the Universities 78

Types of Scholasticism 79

Realism Versus Nominalism 80

Intellectualism Versus Voluntarism 81

Pelagianism Versus Augustinianism 82

The Via Moderna 84

The Schola Augustiniana Moderna 86

The Impact of Medieval Scholasticism upon the Reformation 88

Luther’s Relation to Late Medieval Scholasticism 88

Calvin’s Relation to Late Medieval Scholasticism 89

Protestant Scholasticism: Paradox or Inevitability? 91

For Further Reading 92

5 The Reformers: Seven Biographical Sketches 94

Martin Luther (1483–1546) 95

Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) 100

William Tyndale (c.1494–1536) 102

Philip Melanchthon (1497–1560) 103

Martin Bucer (1491–1551) 104

Katharina Schütz Zell (c.1497–1562) 106

John Calvin (1509–64) 107

For Further Reading 110

Part Two: The Core Themes of Reformation Thought 113

6 The Return to the Bible 115

Scripture in the Middle Ages 116

Medieval Hermeneutics: The Four Senses of Scripture 118

The Vulgate Translation of the Bible 119

Medieval Vernacular Versions of Scripture 120

The Humanists and the Bible 121

The Bible and the Protestant Reformation 123

The Canon of Scripture 124

The Authority of Scripture 126

The Role of Tradition 128

Methods of Interpreting Scripture 131

The Right to Interpret Scripture 134

The Translation of Scripture 139

Encouraging Engagement with the Bible 141

The Catholic Response: Trent on Scripture 142

For Further Reading 143

7 The Doctrine of Justification by Faith 147

A Foundational Theme: Redemption Through Christ 147

Justification and Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough 150

Luther’s Early Views on Justification 151

The Nature of Justifying Faith 153

Justification and the Indulgence Controversy (1517) 155

The Concept of “Forensic Justification” 158

Justification and the Early Swiss Reformation 161

The Reformed Approach: Bucer and Calvin on Justification 164

Justification in the English Reformation 166

The Colloquy of Regensburg (1541): “Double Justification” 168

The Catholic Response: Trent on Justification 170

The Nature of Justification 171

The Nature of Justifying Righteousness 172

The Nature of Justifying Faith 173

The Assurance of Salvation 173

For Further Reading 175

8 The Doctrine of the Church 177

The Background to the Reformation Debates: The Donatist Controversy 180

The Context of the Reformation Views on the Church 182

Luther on the Nature of the Church 183

The Radical View of the Church 185

Tensions Within Luther’s Doctrine of the Church 187

Calvin on the Nature of the Church 188

The Two Marks of the Church 189

The Structures of the Church 190

Calvin on the Church and the Consistory 191

Calvin on the Role of the Church 193

The Debate over the Catholicity of the Church 194

The Council of Trent on the Church 197

For Further Reading 198

9 The Doctrine of the Sacraments 199

The Background to the Reformation Debates about the Sacraments 200

A Shared Emphasis: The Sacraments and the Promises of Grace 202

Luther on the Sacraments 204

Luther’s Views on the Real Presence 208

Luther on Infant Baptism 210

Zwingli on the Sacraments 212

Zwingli on the Real Presence 214

Zwingli on Infant Baptism 216

Luther versus Zwingli: A Summary and Evaluation 218

Anabaptist Views on the Sacraments 220

Calvin on the Sacraments 222

Thomas Cranmer: The Real Presence in the English Reformation 225

The Catholic Response: Trent on the Sacraments 227

For Further Reading 229

10 The Doctrine of Predestination 231

The Background to the Reformation Debates over Predestination 232

Zwingli on the Divine Sovereignty 234

Melanchthon’s Changing Views on Predestination 236

Calvin on Predestination 237

Predestination in Later Reformed Theology 242

The Weber Thesis: Predestinarian Anxiety and the Origins of Capitalism 243

For Further Reading 245

11 The Political Thought of the Reformation 247

The Radical Reformation and Secular Authority 248

Luther’s Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms 250

Zwingli on the State and Magistrate 256

Bucer and Calvin on Magistrate and Ministry 258

The “Godly Prince” and the English Reformation 261

For Further Reading 264

12 Reformation Thought: Its Diffusion and Impact 266

Agencies of Diffusion 266

Books: The Transgression of International Boundaries 267

Refugees and the Movement of People 267

The Vernacular 269

Consolidating the Ideas of the Reformation: Some Key Texts 270

Catechisms 270

Confessions of Faith 272

Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion 274

The Impact of Reformation Thought 277

The Protestant Work Ethic 277

The Reformation and Political Change 279

The Reformation and the Emergence of the Natural Sciences 281

Protestantism and the Rise of Modern Atheism 283

Reformation Ecclesiologies and the Modern Church 285

Conclusion 287

For Further Reading 288

Appendix 1 A Glossary of Theological and Historical Terms 290

Appendix 2 English Translations of Major Primary Sources 296

Appendix 3 Standard Abbreviations of Major Journals and Sources 299

Appendix 4 How to Refer to Major Primary Sources 302

Appendix 5 Referring to the Psalms in the Sixteenth Century 306

Appendix 6 Updating Reformation Bibliographies 308

Appendix 7 Chronology of Political and Intellectual History 310

Notes 315

Index 319