Bilingual Education in the 21st Century

Ofelia García is Professor of Urban Education at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. She has been Professor of Bilingual Education at Columbia University's Teachers College, and at The City College of New York; and has been Dean of the School of Education in the Brooklyn Campus of Long Island University. Among her publications are Imagining Multilingual Schools (with T. Skutnabb-Kangas and M. Torres-Guzmán), A Reader in Bilingual Education (with C. Baker), Language Loyalty, Continuity and Change: Joshua Fishman's Contributions to International Sociolinguistics (with Rakhmiel Peltz and Harold Schiffman), and The Multilingual Apple: Languages in New York City (with J.A. Fishman). She is a Fellow of the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Study (STIAS) in South Africa, and has been a Fulbright Scholar, and a Spencer Fellow of the U.S. National Academy of Education.

List of Figures ix List of Tables x

Preface and Acknowledgments (and a Caveat) xii

Part I Bilingual Education for All 1

1 Introducing Bilingual Education 3

Scenarios 3

Introduction 5

What Is Bilingual Education? 5

Beneficiaries and Reasons 11

Geopolitics and Language Orientations 13

Summary 16

Conclusion 17

Part II Bilingualism and Education 19

2 Languaging and Education 21

Introduction 22

Language Constructions 23

Languaging 31

Conclusion 40

3 Bilingualism and Translanguaging 42

Introduction 43

Bilingualism and Translanguaging 44

Models of Bilingualism 51

Questioning Assumptions 56

Bilingual Abilities 61

Bilingual Development 63

Neurolinguistic and Psycholinguistic Considerations 67

Conclusion 71

4 The Sociopolitics of Bilingualism 73

Introduction 73

Transglossia 75

Language Maintenance, Shift, and Revitalization 80

Language Ideologies 82

Language Policy as Right and Resource 84

Conclusion 91

5 Benefits of Bilingualism 93

Introduction 94

Cognitive Advantages 94

Social Advantages 97

Intervening Factors 101

Conclusion 107

Part III Bilingual Education Policy 109

6 Bilingual Education: Frameworks and Types 111

Introduction: The Social Context 112

Bilingual Education Models? 113

Bilingual Education Theoretical Frameworks 115

Bilingual Education Types 123

Conclusion 135

7 Bilingual Education: Factors and Variables 137
by Hugo Baetens Beardsmore

Introduction 137

Situational Factor 138

Operational Factor 146

Outcome Factor 152

Integrating Situational, Operational, and Outcome Factors 156

Conclusion 157

8 U.S. Language Policy in Education 159

Introduction 159

The Past 160

The Present 174

Conclusion 193

9 Language Promotion by European Supra-national Institutions 197
by Hugo Baetens Beardsmore

Introduction 197

The Council of Europe 198

The European Commission 204

Bilingual Education: CLIL/EMILE 208

Conclusion 216

10 Monoglossic Bilingual Education Policy 218

Introduction 219

Policies for Transition: Transitional Bilingual Education 221

Policies for Maintenance and Enrichment: Maintenance Bilingual Education 231

Policies for Enrichment of Social Elite: Prestigious Bilingual Education 236

Policy for Enrichment of Language Majorities: Immersion Bilingual Education 237

Conclusion 240

11 Heteroglossic Bilingual Education Policy 244
by Ofelia García and Hugo Baetens Beardsmore, with contributions by Debra Cole and Zeena Zakharia

Introduction 245

Policies for Language Revitalization: Immersion Revitalization Bilingual Education 247

Policies for Development of Minority Languages: Developmental Bilingual Education 251

Policy for Plurilingualism across Groups: Poly-Directional or Two-Way Bilingual Education (Dual Language) 257

Policies for Plurilingualism within Groups: CLIL and CLIL-Type Bilingual Education 264

Policies for Multiple Languages: Multiple Multilingual Education 266

Conclusion 280

Part IV Bilingual Education Practices 287

12 Bilingualism in the Curriculum 289

Introduction 289

Bilingual Allocation 290

Bilingual Arrangements 291

Bilingual Practices: Translanguaging 304

Models of Bilingual Teaching 308

Conclusion 309

13 Bilingual Education Pedagogy and Practices 312

Introduction 312

Bilingual Education Approaches and Methods 313

Principles and Practices of Bilingual Education Pedagogy 318

Strategies: Scaffolding 329

Conclusion 335

14 Biliteracy Practices and Pedagogy 337

Introduction 337

A Sociocultural Approach 338

The Continua of Biliteracy 340

Models of Biliteracy Use 342

Biliteracy Sequencing 344

Written Language and Texts 346

Instructional Approaches 351

The Biliteracy Workshop 354

Conclusion 364

15 Assessment of Bilinguals 366
by Ofelia García and Hugo Baetens Beardsmore

Introduction 366

The Power of Assessment 367

Assessing Bilinguals 369

Democratic Assessment for Bilinguals 378

Conclusion 378

Part V Bilingual Education for the Twenty-first Century 381

Conclusion 383

Appendix: Myths and Realities 390
by Cristina Muir, Yesenia Morales, Lori Falchi, and Ofelia García

Notes 395

Bibliography 410

Author Index 459

Subject Index 466