Commercialization of Nanotechnologies–A Case Study Approach (eBook)

Preface 5
Contents 8
1 Introduction—The Current Status and Momentum in Nanotechnology Commercialisation 10
Annex 1 17
Reference 23
2 Review of Production Routes of Nanomaterials 24
Abstract 24
1 Introduction 24
2 Vapour Phase Synthesis 26
2.1 Flame Synthesis 26
2.2 Laser Ablation Method 28
2.3 Arc Discharge Method 30
3 Liquid Phase Synthesis 31
3.1 Chemical Precipitation 32
3.2 Hydrothermal Method 33
3.3 Sol-Gel Method 34
4 Solid Phase Synthesis 36
4.1 Mechanical Milling 36
5 Summary 37
References 37
3 Nanomaterials for Sustainable Energy Production and Storage: Present Day Applications and Possible Developments 39
Abstract 39
1 Introduction 40
2 Nanotechnology for Photovoltaic Systems 41
2.1 Nanostructures in Thin Film Solar Cells 43
2.2 Nanoparticles in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 43
2.3 Nanostructures for Organic Solar Cells 45
2.4 Quantum Well Solar Cells 47
2.5 Other Nanotechnology Approaches for PV 49
3 Hydrogen Economy 51
3.1 Hydrogen Production 51
3.2 Hydrogen Storage 52
3.3 Hydrogen Conversion 55
4 Nanotechnology for Batteries 57
5 Other Applications of Nanomaterials for Sustainable Energy—Transportation and Electrical Energy Transmission 63
6 Life Cycle Assessment for Nanotechnologies Used in Systems for Sustainable Energy Production and Storage 64
7 Summary and Conclusion 69
Conflict of Interests 70
References 71
Integration of Nanostructured Thermoelectric Materials in Micro Power Generators 81
1 Introduction 82
2 The Thermoelectric Effects 82
3 The Thermoelectric Figure of Merit 84
4 State-of-the-art of Thermoelectric Materials 87
4.1 Low-Dimensional Thermoelectric Materials 87
4.2 Nanostructured Silicon: A Case Study 89
5 Thermoelectric Devices 92
5.1 Thermoelectric Microgenerators Based on Nanostructured Materials 94
5.2 Integration of Silicon Nanostructures in Thermoelectric Microgenerators 97
6 Concluding Remarks 101
References 101
5 Towards Voltage-Driven Nano-Spintronics: A Review 106
Abstract 106
1 Introduction 107
2 Why Voltage-Driven Magnetic/Spintronic Nanodevices? 108
3 The Magneto-Electric Effect: Piezoelectric-Magnetostrictive Composites and Single-Phase Multiferroics 109
4 Controlling Magnetism with Electric Field Without Strain-Mediated Effects 111
5 Measurement Techniques of Voltage-Driven Magnetic Effects 113
6 Examples of Voltage-Driven Nano-Spintronic Applications 114
7 Conclusions 119
Acknowledgements 120
References 120
6 Ferroelectric and Piezoelectric Nanomaterials—Basic Properties, Characterization and Applications 123
Abstract 123
1 Introduction 124
2 Ferroelectricity and Piezoelectricity 125
2.1 Ferroelectricity in Perovskite Materials 125
2.2 Piezoelectric Effect 128
2.2.1 Direct and Indirect Piezoelectric Effect 128
2.3 Ferroelectric and Piezoelectric Materials 130
2.4 Grain Size Effects in Ferroelectric Nanomaterials 131
3 Synthesis Methods of Nanomaterials 133
3.1 High Temperature Solid State Reaction—Ceramic Method 134
3.2 Sol-Gel Method 135
3.3 Citrate-Gel Method 136
3.4 Hydrothermal Synthesis, Solvothermal Synthesis 138
3.5 Microemulsion Method 139
3.6 Sintering Process 139
4 Characterization of Ferroelectric and Piezoelectric Nanomaterials 141
4.1 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) 142
4.1.1 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 142
4.1.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) 142
4.2 Electron Microscopy 143
4.2.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 144
4.2.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 144
4.3 X-Ray 146
4.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 147
4.3.2 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS) 147
4.4 Electrical Characterization 149
4.4.1 Parallel Plate Measurement Method 149
4.4.2 Contacting Electrode Method 150
4.4.3 Non-contacting Method 150
5 Applications 151
6 Conclusion 153
Acknowledgements 153
References 153
7 Friction at Nanoscale—Self-assembled Monolayers 158
Abstract 158
1 Introduction 158
2 Fundamental Aspects of Friction and Lubrication 160
3 Basics of Friction at the Macro and Micro Scale 161
3.1 Friction at the Macro and Micro Scale 162
4 Tribology at the Nanoscale 164
4.1 Nanomaterials 164
4.2 Experimental Techniques and Methods Applied in Nanotribology 165
4.3 Nanometer Scale Friction 167
5 Lubrication 169
5.1 Nanoscale Boundary Lubrication 170
5.2 Boundary Lubrication by Self-assembled Monolayers 173
5.2.1 Surfactant Self-assembly 174
5.2.2 Adsorption of Surfactants to Solid Surfaces 175
6 Conclusions 176
References 176
8 Modeling of Self-healing Materials with Nanocontainers Using Discrete and Continuum Methods 181
Abstract 181
1 Introduction 182
1.1 Corrosion Problem 182
1.2 Bio-Inspired Self-healing Concept 182
1.3 Application in Biomedical Materials 183
1.4 Surface Coating for Biomaterial 187
1.5 State of the Art in Modeling 187
2 Methods 189
2.1 Dissipative Particle Dynamics (DPD) Modeling 189
2.2 FEM Modeling 191
2.2.1 Finite Element Navier-Stokes Equations 192
2.2.2 Fitting Parameters Procedure 193
3 Results 194
3.1 DPD Results 194
3.2 FEM Results 200
3.2.1 Fitting Parameters Results 202
4 Discussion 205
5 Conclusions 205
Acknowledgements 206
References 206
9 Nanomaterials for Skin Care 209
Abstract 209
1 Introduction 210
2 Nanodispersed Systems 211
2.1 Vesicular Delivery Systems 211
2.1.1 Liposomes 211
2.1.2 Niosomes 212
2.1.3 Transfersomes 212
2.2 Nanoemulsions 213
2.3 Lipid Nanoparticles 214
2.3.1 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN) 216
2.3.2 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC) 217
3 Nanoparticles 217
3.1 Polymeric Nanocapsules 217
3.1.1 Hydrogels 218
3.1.2 Dendrimers 219
3.2 Nanocrystals 220
3.3 Fullerenes 221
3.4 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 222
4 Toxicity of Nanoparticles 223
4.1 Toxicity of ZnO and TiO2 Nanoparticles 225
5 Conclusion 226
References 227
10 Characteristics and Applications of Silver Nanoparticles 231
Abstract 231
1 Introduction 232
2 Basic Properties of Silver 237
3 Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles 239
4 Antibacterial Properties of Silver Nanoparticles and Relevant Mechanisms of Action 245
5 Application Areas 248
5.1 Application of Ag NPs in Wound Dressings 248
5.2 Application of Ag NPs in Drug Delivery 249
5.3 Application of Ag NPs in Biosensors and Medical Diagnostics 255
5.4 Application of Ag NPs in Orthopedics 256
5.5 Application of Ag NPs in Textile 259
5.6 Application of Ag NPs in Water Disinfection Systems and Environment Related Issues 262
5.7 Application of Ag NPs in Food Industry 266
6 Conclusions 268
Acknowledgements 269
References 269
11 Nanotechnology in Ophthalmology 278
Abstract 278
1 Introduction 279
2 Absorption of Drugs into the Eye 279
3 Ocular Drug Delivery Nanocarriers 280
3.1 Nanocarriers-Based Topical Drug Application to the Eye 282
3.2 Ocular Drug Delivery Nanocarriers Concerning the Anterior Eye Segment 283
3.3 Polylactide Nanoparticles Concerning the Topical Drug Application to the Eye 283
3.4 Chitosan Nanoparticles for Topical Drug Application to the Eye 284
3.5 Nanobiotechnology to Treatment of Glaucoma 285
3.6 Nanoparticleloaded Contact Lenses for Ophthalmic Drug Delivery 286
4 Ocular Drug Delivery Nanocarriers Concerning the Posterior Eye Segment 287
5 Use of Dendrimers in Ophthalmology 289
6 Other Applications of Nanotechnology to Ophthalmology Imaging, Diagnostics and Monitoring 290
7 Regenerative Medicine 292
8 Nanosurgery 293
9 Nanoparticles for Gene Delivery/Therapy of Retinal Degenerative Disorders 293
10 Nanoparticle Safety 294
11 Conclusion 295
References 295
12 Ever-Expanding Application Potentials for Iron-Based Nanomaterials: Catalyses and Biomedicine 301
Abstract 301
1 Introduction 301
2 Synthesis Methods 303
2.1 Chemical Precipitation 304
2.2 Sol-Gel Techniques 304
2.3 Organic Iron Compounds Thermal and Sonochemical Degradation 304
2.4 Ultrasonic Spray Pyrolysis 305
2.5 Iron Mining Waste Reuse for Nanoparticle Synthesis 306
3 Industrial Catalysys and Industrial Pollution Related Application of Iron Nanoparticles 307
4 Biomedical Applications of Iron Nanoparticles 311
4.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 312
4.2 Cellular Labelling 312
4.3 Magnetic Hyperthermia (MHT) 313
4.4 Drug Delivery 313
5 Conclusions 314
References 314