Forest Ecology (eBook)

Daniel M. Kashian, Professor of Biological Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, USA. Donald R. Zak, Alexander H. Smith Distinguished University Professor of Ecology; Arthur F. Thurnau Professor, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA. Burton V. Barnes (deceased) was an integral part of the authorship of Forest Ecology from its 2nd edition. Stephen H. Spurr (deceased) authored the original Forest Ecology book and subsequent revisions.

Cover 1
Title Page 5
Copyright Page 6
Dedication Page 7
Contents 9
Preface 25
Part 1 Forest Ecology and Landscape Ecosystems 27
CHAPTER 1 Concepts of Forest Ecology 29
Ecology 30
Landscape Ecosystems 30
LANDSCAPE ECOSYSTEM AND COMMUNITY 33
ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 33
Examples of Landscape Ecosystems 35
An Approach to the Study of Forest Ecology 37
Applicability to Forest Management 38
Suggested Readings 39
CHAPTER 2 Landscape Ecosystems at Multiple Scales 41
Overview of Spatial and Temporal Scales 41
Spatial Scales of Hierarchical Landscape Ecosystems 43
CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION 44
PHYSIOGRAPHY 46
Vegetation Types and Biomes 46
Distinguishing and Mapping Landscape Ecosystems at Multiple Spatial Scales 51
REGIONAL LANDSCAPE ECOSYSTEMS 52
Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Michigan 54
Local Landscape Ecosystems 56
LOCAL LANDSCAPE ECOSYSTEMS IN UPPER MICHIGAN 56
Suggested Readings 58
Part 2 The Forest Tree 59
CHAPTER 3 Forest Tree Variation 61
Components of Phenotypic Variation 61
PLASTICITY OF THE PHENOTYPE 62
Sources of Variation 63
The Evolutionary Sequence 64
SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL SYSTEMS 65
Genetic Diversity of Woody Species 65
Genecology 66
PATTERNS OF GENECOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION 67
FACTORS ELICITING GENECOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION 68
EXAMPLES OF GENECOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION 72
FACTORS AFFECTING DIFFERENTIATION: GENE FLOW AND SELECTION PRESSURE 82
Ecological Considerations at the Species Level 83
NICHE 86
HYBRIDIZATION 86
POLYPLOIDY 89
THE FITNESS–FLEXIBILITY COMPROMISE 92
EPIGENETICS 92
Suggested Readings 93
CHAPTER 4 Regeneration Ecology 95
Regeneration 95
Sexual Reproduction 97
MATURATION AND THE ABILITY TO FLOWER 97
REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES 100
POLLINATION 101
PERIODICITY OF SEED CROPS 102
EFFECTS OF REPRODUCTION ON VEGETATIVE GROWTH 104
DISPERSAL 106
SEED BANK, DORMANCY, AND GERMINATION 108
Establishment Following Sexual Reproduction 109
POST-ESTABLISHMENT DEVELOPMENT 116
Vegetative Reproduction 116
Suggested Readings 120
CHAPTER 5 Tree Structure and Growth 121
Tree Form 121
ARCHITECTURAL MODELS 123
Roots 128
KINDS, FORMS, AND OCCURRENCE 129
FINE ROOT RELATIONS 131
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ROOT DEVELOPMENT 133
PERIODICITY OF PRIMARY ROOT GROWTH 134
ROOT GRAFTING 134
SPECIALIZED ROOTS AND BUTTRESSES 136
Stems 136
XYLEM CELLS AND GROWTH RINGS 137
PERIODICITY AND CONTROL OF SECONDARY GROWTH 138
WINTER FREEZING AND WATER TRANSPORT 141
Water Deficits and Tree Growth 142
Suggested Readings 144
Part 3 The Physical Environment 145
CHAPTER 6 Light 149
Distribution of Light Reaching the Ecosphere 150
PLANT INTERCEPTION OF RADIATION 151
CANOPY STRUCTURE AND LEAF AREA 151
Light Quality Beneath the Forest Canopy 156
SUNFLECKS 156
Light and Growth of Trees 159
LIGHT AND SEEDLING SURVIVAL AND GROWTH 162
Light and Tree Morphology and Anatomy 163
LIGHT AND EPICORMIC SPROUTING 165
Photocontrol of Plant Response 165
Light and Ecosystem Change 167
Suggested Readings 167
CHAPTER 7 Temperature 169
Geographical Patterns Of Temperature 169
Temperatures at the Soil Surface 171
Temperature within the Forest 173
Temperature Variation with Local Topography 174
Temperature and Plant Growth 176
COLD INJURY TO PLANTS 179
DORMANCY 181
FROST HARDINESS AND COLD RESISTANCE 182
WINTER CHILLING AND GROWTH RESUMPTION 187
Natural Plant Distributions and Cold Hardiness 188
DECIDUOUSNESS AND TEMPERATURE 190
Suggested Readings 191
CHAPTER 8 Physiography 193
Concepts And Terms 193
Characteristics of Physiography and their Significance 194
PHYSIOGRAPHIC SETTING 195
SPECIFIC LANDFORMS 196
ELEVATION 196
FORM OF LANDFORMS 196
PARENT MATERIAL IN RELATION TO LANDFORM 199
POSITION OF LANDFORM IN THE LANDSCAPE 200
Multiple Roles of Physiography 200
Physiographic Diversity, Landscape Ecosystems, and Vegetation 202
MOUNTAINOUS PHYSIOGRAPHY 202
FLATLANDS 209
Physiography and Firebreaks 216
Microlandforms and Microtopography 217
TREE UPROOTING AND PIT-AND-MOUND MICROTOPOGRAPHY 217
MICROTOPOGRAPHY AND REGENERATION IN HARDWOOD SWAMPS 219
Suggested Readings 220
CHAPTER 9 Soil 221
Parent Material 221
Soil Formation 223
SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPMENT 223
Physical Properties of Soil 226
SOIL TEXTURE 226
SOIL STRUCTURE 227
SOIL COLOR 228
SOIL WATER 228
Chemical Properties of Soil 232
CLAY MINERALOGY 233
CATION EXCHANGE AND THE SUPPLY OF NUTRIENTS 235
SOIL ACIDITY 236
SOIL ORGANIC MATTER 238
Soil Classification 239
Landform, Soil, and Forest Vegetation: Landscape Relationships 241
Suggested Readings 243
CHAPTER 10 Fire 245
Fire and the Forest Tree 246
CAUSES 246
FIRE REGIME 246
FIRE ADAPTATIONS AND KEY CHARACTERISTICS 250
STRATEGIES OF SPECIES PERSISTENCE 253
Fire and the Forest Site 256
INDIRECT EFFECTS 256
DIRECT EFFECTS 258
ORGANIC MATTER AND EROSION 260
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF FIRE 262
Suggested Readings 262
CHAPTER 11 Site Quality and Ecosystem Evaluation and Classification 263
Direct Measurement Of Forest Productivity 264
Tree Height as a Measure of Site 265
SITE-INDEX CURVES 266
COMPARISONS BETWEEN SPECIES 269
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS 269
Vegetation as an Indicator of Site Quality 270
SPECIES GROUPS OF GROUND COVER 271
PLANT ASSOCIATIONS AND HABITAT TYPES IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES 273
APPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF VEGETATION 276
Environmental Factors as a Measure of Site 277
CLIMATIC FACTORS 277
PHYSIOGRAPHIC LAND CLASSIFICATION 278
PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND SOIL FACTORS: SOIL-SITE STUDIES 278
SOIL SURVEYS 282
Multiple-Factor Methods of Site and Ecosystem Classification 282
ECOSYSTEM CLASSIFICATION AND MAPPING IN BADEN-WÜRTTEMBERG 283
APPLICATIONS OF MULTI-FACTOR METHODS IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA 284
Suggested Readings 291
Part 4 Forest Communities 293
CHAPTER 12 Animals in Forest Ecosystems 295
Plant Defense 295
INVESTMENT IN PLANT DEFENSE 296
PLANT DEFENSE AGAINST INSECTS 298
PLANT DEFENSE AGAINST MAMMALS 302
Roles of Animals in Plant Life History 303
POLLINATION 303
SEED DISPERSAL 304
GERMINATION AND ESTABLISHMENT 310
DECOMPOSITION, MINERAL CYCLING, AND SOIL IMPROVEMENT 311
DAMAGE AND DEATH 312
Influence of Livestock on Forest Ecosystems 314
Suggested Readings 316
CHAPTER 13 Forest Communities 317
Community Concept 317
GROUNDING COMMUNITIES 318
View from the Past: Community Concepts 322
SCHOOLS AND TERMINOLOGY 322
CONTINUUM CONCEPT 324
Community as a Landscape Ecosystem Property 325
Examples of Spatial Variation in Forest Communities 326
DISCRETE FOREST COMMUNITIES 326
MERGING FOREST COMMUNITIES 329
Competition and Niche Differentiation 331
Interactions Among Organisms 333
MUTUALISMS IN FOREST ECOSYSTEMS 333
COMPETITION 334
Understory Tolerance 341
CHARACTERISTICS OF UNDERSTORY-TOLERANT AND -INTOLERANT SPECIES 342
TOLERANCE RATINGS OF TREE SPECIES 343
EXAMPLES OF UNDERSTORY TOLERANCE IN FOREST ECOSYSTEMS 345
NATURE OF UNDERSTORY TOLERANCE 345
Suggested Readings 351
CHAPTER 14 Diversity in Forests 353
Concepts Of Biological And Ecosystem Diversity 353
The Value of Species Diversity 354
VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY 355
COMMON THREATS TO DIVERSITY 357
Measuring Diversity 357
LEVELS OF DIVERSITY 357
MEASUREMENT 359
DIVERSITY OF LANDSCAPE ECOSYSTEMS 362
EXAMPLES OF DIVERSITY 363
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY 368
Causes of Species Diversity 369
DIVERSITY AT CONTINENTAL AND SUBCONTINENTAL SCALES 369
DIVERSITY AT LOCAL SCALES 372
Focal Species In Conserving Diversity 377
FOUNDATION SPECIES 378
KEYSTONE SPECIES 378
ENDEMICS AND RARE AND ENDANGERED SPECIES 379
Diversity and the Functioning of Ecosystems 380
BIODIVERSITY–PRODUCTIVITY RELATIONSHIP 380
THE ROLE OF BIODIVERSITY IN ECOSYSTEM STABILITY 382
Forest Management and Diversity 383
EFFECTS OF TRADITIONAL FOREST MANAGEMENT ON DIVERSITY 383
PRESERVING DIVERSITY IN MANAGED FORESTS 384
ECOLOGICAL FORESTRY: INCORPORATING BIODIVERSITY INTO FOREST MANAGEMENT 385
Epilog: Conserving Ecosystem and Biological Diversity 389
Suggested Readings 390
Part 5 Forest Ecosystem Dynamics 391
CHAPTER 15 Long-Term Forest Ecosystem and Vegetation Change 393
Change Before the Pleistocene Age 393
Pleistocene Glaciations 394
Ecosystem and Vegetational Change Since the Last Glacial Maximum 396
EASTERN NORTH AMERICA 396
WESTERN NORTH AMERICA 399
Patterns of Tree Genera and Species Migrations 401
MIGRATION IRREGULARITIES AND DISTURBANCE 403
MIGRATION FROM GLACIAL MICROREFUGIA 403
Independent Migration and Similarity of Communities Through Time 405
Suggested Readings 406
CHAPTER 16 Disturbance 407
Concepts of Disturbance 408
DEFINING A DISTURBANCE 408
DISTURBANCE AS AN ECOSYSTEM PROCESS 410
SOURCEs OF DISTURBANCE 412
Major Disturbances in Forest Ecosystems 413
FIRE 413
WIND 426
FLOODWATER AND ICE STORMS 430
INSECTS AND DISEASE 432
CATASTROPHIC AND LOCAL LAND MOVEMENTS 433
LOGGING 433
LAND CLEARING 435
DISTURBANCE INTERACTIONS 435
Biotic Composition Changes 437
ELIMINATION OF SPECIES 437
ADDITION OF SPECIES 438
Suggested Readings 438
CHAPTER 17 Forest Succession 439
Basic Concepts of Succession 440
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SUCCESSION 440
BIOLOGICAL LEGACIES 440
SUCCESSIONAL PATHWAYS, MECHANISMS, AND MODELS 440
AUTOGENIC AND ALLOGENIC SUCCESSION 442
HOW IS SUCCESSION DETERMINED? 442
Evolution of the Concept of Forest Succession 443
FORMAL ECOLOGICAL THEORY 443
How Does Succession Work? 444
CLEMENTSIAN SUCCESSION 445
STAGES OF SUCCESSION 446
SUCCESSIONAL CAUSES, MECHANISMS, AND MODELS 453
Change in Ecosystems 457
END POINT OF SUCCESSION? 457
Succession as an Ecosystem Process 458
Examples of Forest Succession 460
PRIMARY SUCCESSION ON RECENTLY DEGLACIATED TERRAIN 460
SUCCESSION FOLLOWING THE ERUPTION OF MOUNT ST. HELENS 463
SECONDARY SUCCESSION FOLLOWING FIRE IN PONDEROSAPINE FORESTS OF WESTERN MONTANA 465
SECONDARY SUCCESSION AND GAP DYNAMICS 465
FIRE AND OAK DOMINANCE—OAKS AT RISK 472
Suggested Readings 473
CHAPTER 18 Carbon Balance of Trees and Ecosystems 475
Carbon Balance of Trees 476
PHOTOSYNTHESIS, DARK RESPIRATION, AND LEAF C GAIN 476
LIGHT AND LEAF C GAIN 478
TEMPERATURE AND LEAF C GAIN 480
WATER AND LEAF C GAIN 481
SOIL NITROGEN AVAILABILITY AND LEAF C GAIN 482
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE RESPIRATION 482
ALLOCATION TO STRUCTURE, STORAGE, AND DEFENSE 485
LIGHT AND C ALLOCATION 487
SOIL NITROGEN AVAILABILITY AND C ALLOCATION 487
Carbon Balance of Ecosystems 491
BIOMASS AND PRODUCTIVITY OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS 492
MEASUREMENT OF BIOMASS AND PRODUCTIVITY 495
CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIVITY 499
SOIL PROPERTIES, FOREST BIOMASS, AND ANPP 501
BIOMASS ACCUMULATION DURING ECOSYSTEM DEVELOPMENT 503
Soil N Availability and Belowground Net Primary Productivity 508
Suggested Readings 511
CHAPTER 19 Nutrient Cycling 513
Nutrient Additions to Forest Ecosystems 514
MINERAL WEATHERING 514
ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION 516
BIOLOGICAL FIXATION OF NITROGEN 519
Nutrient Cycling within Forest Ecosystems 523
NUTRIENT TRANSPORT TO ROOTS 523
NUTRIENT UPTAKE AND ASSIMILATION BY ROOTS 524
ROOT ARCHITECTURE, MYCORRHIZAE, AND NUTRIENT ACQUISITION 527
PLANT LITTER AND THE RETURN OF NUTRIENTS TO FOREST FLOOR AND SOIL 530
NUTRIENTS IN THE FOREST FLOOR 535
ORGANIC MATTER DECOMPOSITION AND NUTRIENT MINERALIZATION 538
Nutrient Loss From Forest Ecosystems 549
NUTRIENT LEACHING FROM FOREST ECOSYSTEMS 550
DENITRIFICATION 551
The Cycling and Storage of Nutrients in Forest Ecosystems 553
NUTRIENT STORAGE IN BOREAL, TEMPERATE, AND TROPICAL FORESTS 553
THE NITROGEN AND CALCIUM CYCLE OF A TEMPERATE FOREST ECOSYSTEM 554
Ecosystem C Balance and the Retention and Loss of Nutrients 556
Forest Harvesting and Nutrient Loss 558
Suggested Readings 560
Part 6 Forests of the Future 561
CHAPTER 20 Climate Change and Forest Ecosystems 563
Climate Change Concepts 563
EFFECTS ON TEMPERATURE 566
EFFECTS ON PRECIPITATION 569
Climate Change Effects on the Forest Tree 572
TREE GROWTH AND MORTALITY 572
PHENOLOGY 574
REGENERATION 577
Climate Change Effects on Tree Species Distributions 580
OBSERVED RANGE SHIFTS 580
PROJECTED CHANGES IN TREE SPECIES DISTRIBUTIONS 582
PROJECTED CHANGES IN FOREST TYPE DISTRIBUTIONS 585
Climate Change Effects on Forest Disturbances 587
FIRES 589
INSECTS AND PATHOGENS 594
WIND 596
Climate Change Effects on Forest Carbon 597
CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS ON CARBON GAIN: PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY 598
CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS ON CARBON LOSS: HETEROTROPHIC RESPIRATION 598
FEEDBACKs AMONG DISTURBANCE, CLIMATE CHANGE, AND CARBON IN FORESTS 601
Adapting to Climate Change Effects on Forests 604
ASSISTED MIGRATION 605
REFUGIA 607
FOREST CARBON MANAGEMENT 609
Suggested Readings 611
CHAPTER 21 Invasive Species in Forest Ecosystems 613
Concepts Of Invasive Species 613
DEFINITION OF INVASIVE SPECIES 613
CHARACTERISTIC TRAITS OF INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES 615
NON-PLANT INVASIVE SPECIES IN FORESTS 620
Impacts Of Invasive Species On Forests 623
IMPACTS OF INVASIVE PLANTS ON FORESTS 623
IMPACTS OF INVASIVE INSECTS AND PATHOGENS ON FORESTS 626
IMPACTS OF INVASIVE ANIMALS ON FORESTS 630
A Primer Of Invasive Species Management In Forests 631
EARLY INTERVENTION STRATEGIES 633
MANAGEMENT APPROACHES FOR ESTABLISHED INVASIVE SPECIES 633
NOVEL ECOSYSTEMS AND INVASIVE SPECIES 634
Suggested Readings 636
CHAPTER 22 Forest Landscape Ecology 637
Concepts Of Landscape Ecology 638
Forest Fragmentation And Connectivity 641
PATCHES IN FOREST ECOLOGY 642
FOREST FRAGMENTATION 643
Ecological Effects 643
CONNECTIVITY 646
Disturbances On Landscapes 648
EFFECTS OF HETEROGENEITY ON DISTURBANCES 648
EFFECTS OF DISTURBANCES ON HETEROGENEITY 651
HISTORICAL RANGE OF VARIABILITY 656
Interactions Of Landscape Patterns And Ecological Processes 658
LEAF AREA AND PRODUCTIVITY 659
FOREST CARBON DYNAMICS 661
NUTRIENT DYNAMICS 662
Suggested Readings 664
CHAPTER 23 Sustainability of Forest Ecosystems 665
Concepts of Sustainability 665
THE PREVALENCE OF HUMAN VALUES IN FOREST ECOLOGY 665
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF SUSTAINABILITY IN FORESTS 667
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES 668
TOWARD A DEFINITION OF SUSTAINABILITY 670
Where Do We Go From Here? 672
EPILOG: EARTH AS A METAPHOR FOR LIFE 674
Suggested Readings 676
References 677
Scientific Names of Trees and Shrubs 757
Index 765
EULA 784