Instruction

Thomas H. Estes is professor emeritus of the Curry School of Education at the University of Virginia. Currently he serves as president of Dynamic Literacy, a company specializing in vocabulary development products based in Latin and Greek underpinnings of academic English. He received his PhD in reading education from Syracuse University. Dr. Estes taught in the McGuffey Reading Center of the Curry School and in the Curriculum, Learning, and Teaching program for 31 years. Susan Mintz is an associate professor and program coordinator of Secondary Education in the University of Virginia′s Teacher Education program. She also teaches and advises graduate students in the Curriculum and Instruction doctoral program. Dr. Mintz received her PhD in teacher education from Syracuse University. She is an author of the CLASS-S observation manual, developed at the University of Virginia's Center for the Advanced Study of Teaching and Learning.

PART ONE PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTION 1
1 Standards and Content in Schools 3 Chapter Objectives 3 The Importance of Planning 3 How Learning Happens 5 Student Characteristics That Affect Learning 7 Standards and Academic Content 8 Analyzing Content 9 Ordering Content 10   Strategy Alert KWL 10 Elements of Instructional Planning 11 Scope 11 Focus 12 Sequence 13 Chunking Instruction: Units and Lessons 14 Developing Lesson Plans 14 Summary 14 Extensions 15   2 Objectives, Assessment, and Instruction 16 Chapter Objectives 16 The Purpose of Instructional Objectives 17 The KUD Format for Instructional Objectives 21 Know Objectives 21 Understand Objectives 24 Able to Do Objectives 26 Moving from Standards to Objectives 29 Instructional Alignment 29 Assessing Instructional Objectives 31 Formative Assessments 31 Summative Assessments 32 Summary 33 Extensions 33 Part One Summary 35  
PART TWO BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS 37
3 The Direct Instruction Model 40 Chapter Objectives 40   In the Elementary Classroom 40   In the Middle/Secondary Classroom 41 Basis for the Direct Instruction Model 43 Steps in the Direct Instructional Model 44 Step 1: Review Previously Learned Material 44 Step 2: State Objectives for The Lesson 44   Strategy Alert Advance Organizers 45 Step 3: Present New Material 45 Step 4: Guide Practice, Assess Performance, and Provide Corrective Feedback 47 Step 5: Assign Independent Practice, Assess Performance, and Provide Corrective Feedback 49 Step 6: Review Periodically, Offering Corrective Feedback If Necessary 50 Summary of Steps in the Direct Instruction Model 50 Evaluating Learning in the Direct Instruction Model 51 Meeting Individual Needs in Direct Instruction 53 Flexible Grouping 53 Varying Questions 53 Benefits of the Direct Instruction Model 54 ELEMENTARY GRADES LESSON Direct Instruction: Rhyming with Mother Goose 54 MIDDLE/SECONDARY GRADES LESSON Direct Instruction: Writing Haiku 56 Summary 57 Extensions 57   4 The Concept Attainment Model 59 Chapter Objectives 59   In the Elementary Classroom 59   In the Middle/Secondary Classroom 60 Basis for the Concept Attainment Model 62 Steps in the Concept Attainment Model 63 Step 1: Select and Define a Concept through the Concept’s Essential Characteristics 63 Step 2: Develop Positive and Negative Examples 65 Step 3: Review the Concept Attainment Process with the Class 66 Step 4: Present the Examples 66 Step 5: Generate Hypotheses and Continue the Example/Hypothesis Cycle 67 Step 6: Develop a Concept Label and Definition 67   Strategy Alert Generating and Testing Hypotheses 67 Step 7: Provide Test Examples to Solidify the Definition 68 Step 8: Discuss the Process with the Class 68 Summary of Steps in the Concept Attainment Model 68 Variations on the Concept Attainment Model 69 Evaluating Learning in the Concept Attainment Model 70 Meeting Individual Needs with the Concept Attainment Model 71 Benefits of the Concept Attainment Model 72 ELEMENTARY GRADES LESSON Concept Attainment: Hibernation 72 MIDDLE/SECONDARY GRADES LESSON Concept Attainment: Metaphors 73 Summary 75 Extensions 77   5 The Concept Development Model 78 Chapter Objectives 78   In the Elementary Classroom 78   In the Middle/Secondary Classroom 80 Basis for the Concept Development Model 82 Steps in the Concept Development Model 85 Step 1: List as Many Items as Possible That Are Associated with the Subject 86   Strategy Alert Brainstorming 86 Step 2: Group the Items Because They Are Alike in Some Way 87 Step 3: Label the Groups by Defining the Reasons for Grouping 87 Step 4: Regroup or Subsume Individual Items or Whole Groups under Other Groups 87 Step 5: Synthesize the Information by Summarizing the Data and Forming Generalizations 88 Summary of Steps in the Concept Development Model 89 Evaluating Learning in the Concept Development Model 89 Meeting Individual Needs with the Concept Development Model 91 Benefits of Using the Concept Development Model 91 ELEMENTARY GRADES LESSON Concept Development: Living and Nonliving Things 92 MIDDLE/SECONDARY GRADES LESSON Concept Development: Grudge 93 Summary 93 Extensions 94   6 The Cause-and-Effect Model 95 Chapter Objectives 95   In the Elementary Classroom 95   In the Middle/Secondary Classroom 98 The Basis of the Cause-and-Effect Model 99 Steps in the Cause-and-Effect Model 100 Step 1: Choose the Data or Topic, Action, or Problem to Be Analyzed 101 Step 2: Ask for Causes and Support for Those Causes 101 Step 3: Ask for Effects and Support 101 Step 4: Ask for Prior Causes and Support 101 Step 5: Ask for Subsequent Effects and Support 101   Strategy Alert Flow Charts 102 Step 6: Ask for Conclusions 103 Step 7: Ask for Generalizations 103 Summary of Steps in the Cause-and-Effect Model 104 Evaluating Learning in the Cause-and-Effect Model 104 Meeting Individual Needs with the Cause-and-Effect Model 105 Benefits of the Cause-and-Effect Model 106 ELEMENTARY GRADES LESSON Cause and Effect: Water Cycle, Blizzards, and The Long Winter 106 SECONDARY GRADES LESSON Cause and Effect: Hamlet and Claudius 107 Summary 108 Extensions 110   7 The Vocabulary Acquisition Model 111 Chapter Objectives 111   In the Elementary Classroom 111   In the Middle/Secondary Classroom 113 The Basis of the Vocabulary Acquisition Model 115 The Spelling—Meaning Connection 115 Principles Underlying the Vocabulary Acquisition Model 116 How Vocabulary Is Acquired 118 Steps in the Vocabulary Acquisition Model 119 Step 1: Pretest Knowledge of Words Critical to Content 119 Step 2: Elaborate and Discuss Spellings and Meanings 119 Step 3: Directly Teach Words on Which Comprehension Will Hinge 120   Strategy Alert Linking Strategies 121   Strategy Alert Think-Pair-Share121 Step 4: Read and Study 124 Step 5: Evaluate and Posttest 124 Summary of Steps in the Vocabulary Acquisition Model 125 Evaluating Learning in the Vocabulary Acquisition Model 126 Meeting Individual Needs with the Vocabulary Acquisition Model 126 Benefits of the Vocabulary Acquisition Model 128 ELEMENTARY GRADES LESSON Vocabulary Acquisition: Units of Measurement 128 MIDDLE/SECONDARY GRADES LESSON Vocabulary Acquisition: The Middle Ages 129 Summary 130 Extensions 131 Part Two Summary 133  
PART THREE TEACHING WITH ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS 135
8 The Integrative Model 137 Chapter Objectives 137   In the Elementary Classroom 137   In the Middle/Secondary Classroom 139 Basis for the Integrative Model 142 Steps in the Integrative Model 143 Step 1: Planning for the Integrative Model 143 Step 2: Describe, Compare, and Search for Patterns in a Data Set 146 Step 3: Explain the Identified Similarities and Differences 147 Step 4: Hypothesize What Would Happen under Different Conditions 147 Step 5: Make Broad Generalizations about the Topic and the Discussion 147   Strategy Alert Summarizing 148 Summary of Steps in the Integrative Model 148 Evaluating Learning in the Integrative Model 150 Meeting Individual Needs with the Integrative Model 152   Strategy Alert Cubing 152 Benefits of the Integrative Model 153 ELEMENTARY GRADES LESSON Integrative Model: Fractions 153 MIDDLE/SECONDARY GRADES LESSON Integrative Model: Societal Changes Affecting Families 155 Summary 156 Extensions 156     9 The Socratic Seminar Model 157 Chapter Objectives 157   In the Elementary Classroom 157   In the Middle/Secondary Classroom 159 The Basis for the Socratic Seminar Model 160 Versions of the Socratic Seminar 161 Questioning 163 Examples of Question Types 163 Steps in the Socratic Seminar Model 165 Step 1: Choose the Text–Written, Visual, or Audio 165 Step 2: Plan and Cluster Several Questions of Varying Cognitive Demand 165 Step 3: Introduce the Model to the Students 166 Step 4: Conduct the Dialogue 167 Step 5: Review and Summarize the Seminar 168 Step 6: Evaluate the Seminar with the Students Based on Previously Stated Criteria 168 Summary of Steps in the Socratic Seminar Model 170   Strategy Alert Reciprocal Teaching 171 Evaluating Learning in the Socratic Seminar Model 173 Meeting Individual Needs with the Socratic Seminar Model 173 Benefits of the Socratic Seminar Model 174 ELEMENTARY GRADES LESSON Socratic Seminar: Old Henry, by Joan W. Blos 174 MIDDLE/SECONDARY GRADES LESSON Socratic Seminar: The War Prayer and “Sullivan Ballou’s Letter to His Wife” 176 Summary 177 Extensions 177   10 Cooperative Learning Models 179 Chapter Objectives 179   In the Elementary Classroom 179   In the Middle/Secondary Classroom 181 Basis of Cooperative Learning Models 182 The Cooperative Learning Model: The Template 184   Strategy Alert Numbered Heads 184 Planning Steps 185 Implementation Steps 185 Summary of Steps in the Cooperative Learning Template Model 186 Specific Cooperative Models 186 The Graffiti Model 186 The Jigsaw Model 188 The Structured Academic Controversy Model 192 The Student Teams-Achievement Division (STAD) Model 196 Evaluating Learning in the Cooperative Learning Models 199 Meeting Individual Needs with the Cooperative Learning Models 200 Benefits of the Cooperative Learning Models 201 ELEMENTARY GRADES LESSON Cooperative Learning Jigsaw: Clouds 201 MIDDLE/SECONDARY GRADES LESSON Cooperative Learning Graffiti: Formal and Informal Speech 202 Summary 203 Extensions 203   11 Inquiry Models 205 Chapter Objectives 205   In the Elementary Classroom 205   In the Middle/Secondary Classroom 206 The Basis for an Inquiry Approach to Instruction 209 Inquiry Model 1: The Suchman Inquiry Model 212 Step 1: Select a Problem and Conduct Research 212 Step 2: Introduce the Process and Present the Problem 213 Step 3: Gather Data 213 Step 4: Develop a Hypothesis and Test It 214 Step 5: Explain the Hypothesis and State the Rules Associated with It 214 Step 6: Analyze the Process 214 Step 7: Evaluate 214 Summary of Steps in the Suchman Inquiry Model 215 Inquiry Model 2: The WebQuest Model 217 Step 1: The Teacher Selects a Problem and Conducts Preliminary Research 217 Step 2: Present the Problem in the WebQuest Unit 218 Step 3: Students Gather Data and Information to Solve the Problem 218 Step 4: Students Develop and Verify Their Solutions 219 Summary of Steps in the WebQuest Model of Inquiry 219 Inquiry Model 3: The Problem-Based Inquiry Model 219 Step 1: Engage with a Problem 221   Strategy Alert Generating and Testing Hypotheses 222 Step 2: Explore the Problem with the PBL Inquiry Chart 222 Step 3: Explain and Share the Information 223 Step 4: Elaborate and Take Action 223 Step 5: Evaluate the Process 223 Summary of Steps in the Problem- Based Inquiry Model 223 Evaluating Learning in the Inquiry Models 224 Meeting Individual Needs with the Inquiry Models 226 Benefits of Inquiry Models 226 Connections between Models 227 ELEMENTARY GRADES LESSON Problem-Based Inquiry: Monarch Butterflies and Stewardship 227 MIDDLE/SECONDARY GRADES LESSON Suchman Inquiry: Toxins 228 Summary 229 Extensions 230   12 The Synectics Model 231 Chapter Objectives 231   In the Elementary Classroom 231   In the Middle/Secondary Classroom 232 Basis for the Synectics Model 235 Making the Familiar Strange 236 Step 1: Describe the Topic 236 Step 2: Create Direct Analogies 237 Step 3: Describe Personal Analogies 237 Step 4: Identify Compressed Conflicts 238 Step 5: Create a New Direct Analogy 238 Step 6: Reexamine the Original Topic 239 Summary of Steps in Making the Familiar Strange 239 Making the Strange Familiar 241 Step 1: Provide Information 241 Step 2: Present the Analogy 241 Step 3: Use Personal Analogies to Create Compressed Conflicts 241 Step 4: Compare the Compressed Conflict with the Subject 241 Step 5: Identify Differences 241 Step 6: Reexamine the Original Subject 242 Step 7: Create New Direct Analogies 242 Summary of Steps in Making the Strange Familiar 242 The Synectics Excursion 244 Step 1: Present the Problem 244 Step 2: Provide Expert Information 244 Step 3: Question Obvious Solutions and Purge 244 Step 4: Generate Individual Problem Statements 244 Step 5: Choose One Problem Statement for Focus 245 Step 6: Question through the Use of Analogies 245 Step 7: Force Analogies to Fit the Problem 245 Step 8: Determine a Solution from a New Viewpoint 245 Summary of Steps in the Synectics Excursion 246 Evaluating Learning in the Synectics Model 246 Meeting Individual Needs with the Synectics Model 248   Strategy Alert Graphic Organizers 249 Benefits of the Synectics Model 249 ELEMENTARY GRADES LESSON Synectics Model: The Civil War 250 MIDDLE/SECONDARY GRADES LESSON Synectics Model: Witches 251 Summary 252 Extensions 252 Part Three Summary 253  
PART FOUR PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER 255
13 A Fourth Grade Case Study 257 Chapter Objectives 257 Mrs. Evans’ Plan 258 Lesson One: Words We Use to Talk about Angles 259 Lesson Two: Exploring Angles 261 Lesson Three: Measuring Angles 262 Epilogue 264 Summary 264 Extensions 265   14 A Middle School Case Study 266 Chapter Objectives 266 The Mumford Plan 270 Unit: Perspective–It All Depends on Where You Were When 272 Lesson One: Toward a Perspective on Point of View 272 Lesson Two: Perception–It Depends on Where You Are Coming from 273 Lesson Three: Relating Perception and Perspective 275 Epilogue 276 Summary 276 Extensions 277   15 A High School Case Study 278 Chapter Objectives 278 Mr. Samuels’s Plan 279 Unit: Macbeth–A Study in Ambition Turned to Avarice 284 Epilogue 286 Summary 288 Extensions 288   16 The Wisdom of Practice 289 Chapter Objectives 289 Good Teachers Are the Leaders of Their Classrooms 290 Good Teachers Create a Productive Environment for Learning 291 Relationship to Student Learning 292 Furniture Arrangement/Seating 292 Climate Control 292 Equipment and Displays 293 Good Teachers Manage Human Relations Effectively 293 Good Teachers Engage Learners in Their Own Learning 294 Good Teachers Teach Up 295 Capitalizing on What Students Know 296 Celebrating Differences between Students 296 Realizing That There Is More Than One Right Answer 296 Providing Appropriate, Quality Feedback 297 Good Teachers Are Good Learners 297 Recognizing the Importance of Professional Knowledge 297 Acting as Researchers 298 Good Teachers Develop Instructional Objectives with Learners 298 Good Teachers Find Out Why a Plan Is Not Working 299 Good Teachers Strive to Make Their Teaching Engaging 300 Good Teachers Give Learners Access to Information and Opportunity to Practice 300 Good Teachers Teach for Two Kinds of Knowledge 301 Summary 302 Extensions 302 Part Four Summary 303 Glossary 305 References 308 Index 312