Reliability and Failure of Electronic Materials and Devices - Lucian Kasprzak, Milton Ohring

Reliability and Failure of Electronic Materials and Devices (eBook)

Lucian Kasprzak, Milton Ohring (Autoren)

eBook Download: EPUB | PDF

2014 | 2. Auflage
758 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-08-057552-0 (ISBN)

Reliability and Failure of Electronic Materials and Devices is a well-established and well-regarded reference work offering unique, single-source coverage of most major topics related to the performance and failure of materials used in electronic devices and electronics packaging. With a focus on statistically predicting failure and product yields, this book can help the design engineer, manufacturing engineer, and quality control engineer all better understand the common mechanisms that lead to electronics materials failures, including dielectric breakdown, hot-electron effects, and radiation damage. This new edition adds cutting-edge knowledge gained both in research labs and on the manufacturing floor, with new sections on plastics and other new packaging materials, new testing procedures, and new coverage of MEMS devices.

Covers all major types of electronics materials degradation and their causes, including dielectric breakdown, hot-electron effects, electrostatic discharge, corrosion, and failure of contacts and solder joints
New updated sections on 'failure physics,' on mass transport-induced failure in copper and low-k dielectrics, and on reliability of lead-free/reduced-lead solder connections
New chapter on testing procedures, sample handling and sample selection, and experimental design
Coverage of new packaging materials, including plastics and composites

Reliability and Failure of Electronic Materials and Devices is a well-established and well-regarded reference work offering unique, single-source coverage of most major topics related to the performance and failure of materials used in electronic devices and electronics packaging. With a focus on statistically predicting failure and product yields, this book can help the design engineer, manufacturing engineer, and quality control engineer all better understand the common mechanisms that lead to electronics materials failures, including dielectric breakdown, hot-electron effects, and radiation damage. This new edition adds cutting-edge knowledge gained both in research labs and on the manufacturing floor, with new sections on plastics and other new packaging materials, new testing procedures, and new coverage of MEMS devices. Covers all major types of electronics materials degradation and their causes, including dielectric breakdown, hot-electron effects, electrostatic discharge, corrosion, and failure of contacts and solder joints New updated sections on "e;failure physics,"e; on mass transport-induced failure in copper and low-k dielectrics, and on reliability of lead-free/reduced-lead solder connections New chapter on testing procedures, sample handling and sample selection, and experimental design Coverage of new packaging materials, including plastics and composites

Front
1
FM-CTR-01 4
Reliability and Failure of Electronic Materials and Devices 4
Copyright 5
DEDICATION 6
CONTENTS 8
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 18
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION 20
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 24
Chapter 1 - An Overview of Electronic Devices and Their Reliability 26
1.1 ELECTRONIC PRODUCTS 26
1.2 RELIABILITY, OTHER ``…ILITIES,'' AND DEFINITIONS 40
1.3 FAILURE PHYSICS 44
1.4 SUMMARY AND PERSPECTIVE 59
EXERCISES 60
REFERENCES 63
Chapter 2 - Electronic Devices: How They Operate and Are Fabricated 64
2.1 INTRODUCTION 64
2.2 ELECTRONIC MATERIALS 65
2.3 DIODES 80
2.4 BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS 86
2.5 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS 90
2.6 MEMORIES 100
2.7 GAAS DEVICES 106
2.8 ELECTRO-OPTICAL DEVICES 111
2.9 PROCESSING-THE CHIP LEVEL 119
2.10 MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS 130
EXERCISES 130
REFERENCES 133
Chapter 3 - Defects, Contaminants, and Yield 136
3.1 SCOPE 136
3.2 DEFECTS IN CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 137
3.3 PROCESSING DEFECTS 154
3.4 CONTAMINATION 170
3.5 YIELD 187
EXERCISES 199
REFERENCES 203
Chapter 4 - The Mathematics of Failure and Reliability 206
4.1 INTRODUCTION 206
4.2 STATISTICS AND DEFINITIONS 208
4.3 ALL ABOUT EXPONENTIAL, LOGNORMAL, AND WEIBULL DISTRIBUTIONS 219
4.4 SYSTEM RELIABILITY 237
4.5 ON THE PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF FAILURE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS 243
4.6 PREDICTION CONFIDENCE AND ASSESSING RISK 257
4.7 A SKEPTICAL AND IRREVERENT SUMMARY 265
STATISTICS AND IGNORANCE 266
SUPERSTITION, WITCHCRAFT, PREDICTION 266
STATISTICS VERSUS PHYSICS 266
WHERE DO I BEGIN? 266
RELIABILITY PREDICTION AND MIL-HDBK-217 266
4.8 EPILOGUE-FINAL COMMENT 267
EXERCISES 268
REFERENCES 272
Chapter 5 - Mass Transport-Induced Failure 274
5.1 INTRODUCTION 274
5.2 DIFFUSION AND ATOM MOVEMENTS IN SOLIDS 275
5.3 BINARY DIFFUSION AND COMPOUND FORMATION 279
5.4 REACTIONS AT METAL-SEMICONDUCTOR CONTACTS 285
5.5 EM PHYSICS AND DAMAGE MODELS 295
5.6 EM IN PRACTICE 310
5.7 STRESS VOIDING 321
5.8 MULTILEVEL COPPER METALLURGY-EM AND SV 330
5.9 FAILURE OF INCANDESCENT LAMPS 341
EXERCISES 343
REFERENCES 348
Chapter 6 - Electronic Charge-Induced Damage 352
6.1 INTRODUCTION 352
6.2 ASPECTS OF CONDUCTION IN INSULATORS 353
6.3 DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN 360
6.4 HOT-CARRIER EFFECTS 380
6.5 ELECTRICAL OVERSTRESS AND ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE 389
6.6 BIAS TEMPERATURE EFFECTS 404
EXERCISES 405
REFERENCES 408
Chapter 7 - Environmental Damage to Electronic Products 412
7.1 INTRODUCTION 412
7.2 ATMOSPHERIC CONTAMINATION AND MOISTURE 413
7.3 CORROSION OF METALS 419
7.4 CORROSION IN ELECTRONICS 427
7.5 METAL MIGRATION 439
7.6 RADIATION DAMAGE TO ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES 445
EXERCISES 462
REFERENCES 464
Chapter 8 - Packaging Materials, Processes, and Stresses 468
8.1 INTRODUCTION 468
8.2 IC CHIP PACKAGING PROCESSES AND EFFECTS 472
8.3 SOLDERS AND THEIR REACTIONS 492
8.4 SECOND-LEVEL PACKAGING TECHNOLOGIES 503
8.5 THERMAL STRESSES IN PACKAGE STRUCTURES 510
EXERCISES 523
REFERENCES 526
Chapter 9 - Degradation of Contacts and Package Interconnections 530
9.1 INTRODUCTION 530
9.2 THE NATURE OF CONTACTS 531
9.3 DEGRADATION OF CONTACTS AND CONNECTORS 537
9.4 CREEP AND FATIGUE OF SOLDER 547
9.5 RELIABILITY AND FAILURE OF SOLDER JOINTS 561
9.6 DYNAMIC LOADING EFFECTS IN ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT 579
EXERCISES 584
REFERENCES 588
Chapter 10 - Degradation and Failure of Electro-Optical Materials and Devices 590
10.1 INTRODUCTION 590
10.2 FAILURE AND RELIABILITY OF LASERS AND LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES 591
10.3 THERMAL DEGRADATION OF LASERS AND OPTICAL COMPONENTS 608
10.4 RELIABILITY OF OPTICAL FIBERS 617
EXERCISES 631
REFERENCES 634
Chapter 11 - Characterization and Failure Analysis of Materials and Devices 636
11.1 OVERVIEW OF TESTING AND FAILURE ANALYSIS 636
11.2 NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION AND DECAPSULATION 641
11.3 STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION 652
11.4 CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION 662
11.5 EXAMINING DEVICES UNDER ELECTRICAL STRESS 671
EXERCISES 684
REFERENCES 687
Chapter 12 - Future Directions and Reliability Issues 690
12.1 INTRODUCTION 690
12.2 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT TECHNOLOGY TRENDS 691
12.3 SCALING 707
12.4 FUNDAMENTAL LIMITS 711
12.5 IMPROVING RELIABILITY 715
EXERCISES 722
REFERENCES 724
APPENDIX 726
VALUES OF SELECTED PHYSICAL CONSTANTS 726
ACRONYMS 728
INDEX 730

Chapter 1

An Overview of Electronic Devices and Their Reliability

Abstract

Never in human existence have scientific and technological advances transformed our lives more profoundly, and in so short a time, as during what may be broadly termed the Age of Electricity and Electronics. From the telegraph in 1837 (which was in a sense digital, although clearly electromechanical) to the telephone and teletype, television and the personal computer, the cell phone and the digital camera, and the World Wide Web, the progress has been truly breathtaking. All these technologies have been focused on communicating information at ever increasing speeds. In contrast to the millennia-long metal ages of antiquity, this age is only little more than a century old. Instead of showing signs of abatement, there is every evidence that its pace of progress is accelerating. In both a practical and theoretical sense, a case can be made for dating the origin of this age to the eighth decade of the nineteenth century. The legacy of tinkering with voltaic cells, electromagnets, and heating elements culminated in the inventions of the telephone in 1876 by Alexander Graham Bell, and the incandescent light bulb 3 years later by Thomas Alva Edison. Despite the fact that James Clerk Maxwell published his monumental work Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in 1873, the inventors probably did not know of its existence. With little in the way of “science” to guide them, innovation came from wonderfully creative and persistent individuals who incrementally improved devices to the point of useful and reliable function. This was the case with the telephone and incandescent lamp, perhaps the two products that had the greatest influence in launching the widespread use of electricity. After darkness was illuminated and communication over distance demonstrated, the pressing need for electric generators and systems to distribute electricity was apparent. Once this infrastructure was in place, other inventions and products capitalizing on electromagnetic-mechanical phenomena quickly followed. Today, texting from a cell phone has replaced the telegraph for the ultimate person-to-person real-time digital conversation. Literally, the telegraph of 1837 has become texting in 2007. Both use letters to interact with someone on the other end (of the wire, so to speak). The rate is about the same, possibly a letter or so a second, when you consider composition for texting, which is real time versus predefined on a form for the telegraph. Both the telegraph (1837) and texting (2007) have roughly the same data entry rate of about two letters a second.

Keywords

Electronic devices; Integrated circuits; Reliability; Solid-state devices

1.1. Electronic Products

1.1.1. Historical Perspective

Never in human existence have scientific and technological advances transformed our lives more profoundly, and in so short a time, as during what may be broadly termed the Age of Electricity and Electronics.1 From the telegraph in 1837 (which was in a sense digital, although clearly electromechanical) to the telephone and teletype, television and the personal computer, the cell phone and the digital camera, and the World Wide Web (WWW), the progress has been truly breathtaking. All these technologies have been focused on communicating information at ever increasing speeds. In contrast to the millennia-long metal ages of antiquity, this age is only little more than a century old. Instead of showing signs of abatement, there is every evidence that its pace of progress is accelerating. In both a practical and theoretical sense, a case can be made for dating the origin of this age to the eighth decade of the nineteenth century [1]. The legacy of tinkering with voltaic cells, electromagnets, and heating elements culminated in the inventions of the telephone in 1876 by Alexander Graham Bell, and the incandescent light bulb 3 years later by Thomas Alva Edison. Despite the fact that James Clerk Maxwell published his monumental work Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in 1873, the inventors probably did not know of its existence. With little in the way of “science” to guide them, innovation came from wonderfully creative and persistent individuals who incrementally improved devices to the point of useful and reliable function. This was the case with the telephone and incandescent lamp, perhaps the two products that had the greatest influence in launching the widespread use of electricity. After darkness was illuminated and communication over distance demonstrated, the pressing need for electric generators and systems to distribute electricity was apparent. Once this infrastructure was in place, other inventions and products capitalizing on electromagnetic-mechanical phenomena quickly followed. Today, texting from a cell phone has replaced the telegraph for the ultimate person-to-person real-time digital conversation. Literally, the telegraph of 1837 has become texting in 2007. Both use letters to interact with someone on the other end (of the wire, so to speak). The rate is about the same, possibly a letter or so a second, when you consider composition for texting, which is real time versus predefined on a form for the telegraph. Both the telegraph (1837) and texting (2007) have roughly the same data entry rate of about two letters a second.

Irrespective of the particular invention, however, materials played a critical role. At first, conducting metals and insulating nonmetals were the only materials required. Although a reasonable number of metals and insulators were potentially available, few were produced in quantity or had the requisite properties. The incandescent lamp is a case in point [2,3]. In the 40 years prior to 1879, some 20 inventors tried assorted filaments (e.g., carbon, platinum, iridium) in various atmospheres (e.g., vacuum, air, nitrogen, hydrocarbon). Frustrating trials with carbon spirals and filaments composed of carbonized fiber, tar, lampblack, paper, fish line, cotton, and assorted woods paved the way to Edison's crowning achievement. His patent revealed that the filament that worked was carbonized cardboard bent in the shape of a horseshoe. Despite the fact that an industry based on incandescent lamps grew rapidly, the filaments were brittle and hard to handle. The glass envelopes darkened rapidly with time, and the bulbs were short lived. Salvation occurred around 1910 when the Coolidge process [4] for making fine tungsten filament wire was developed. Well beyond a century after the original Edison patent, filaments continue to be improved and lamp life extended and today we are increasingly using light emitting diodes (LEDs) as the next generation of efficient illumination.

With the ability to generate electromagnetic waves around the turn of the century, the era of vacuum electronics was born. The invention of vacuum tubes enabled electric waves to be generated, transmitted, detected, and amplified, making wireless communication possible. In particular, the three-electrode vacuum tube invented by Lee de Forest in 1906 became the foundation of electronics for the first half of the twentieth century [5]. Throughout the second half of the twentieth century, electronics has been transformed both by the transistor, which was invented in 1947, and integrated circuits (ICs), which appeared a decade later. The juxtaposition of these milestone devices in Figure 1.1 demonstrates how far we have come in so short a time.

Figure 1.1 Edison's horseshoe filament lamp sketched by patent draftsman Samuel D. Mott serves as the backdrop to the vacuum tube, discrete transistor, and integrated circuit. Courtesy of FSI International, Inc.

A pattern can be discerned in the development of not only electrical devices and equipment, but also all types of products. First, the genius of invention envisions a practical use for a particular physical phenomenon. The design and analysis of the components and devices are then executed, and finally, the materials and manufacturing processes are selected. Usage invariably exposes defects in design and manufacturing, causing failure or the wearing out of the product. Subsequent iterations of design or materials processing improve the reliability or probability of operating the product for a given time period under specified conditions without failure. In a sense, new reliability issues replace old ones, but incremental progress is made. Ultimately, new technologies replace obsolete ones, and the above sequence of events repeats once again.

Well into the Age of Electricity and Electronics, we still use vastly improved versions of some of those early inventions. As you change your next light bulb, however, you will realize that reliability concerns are still an issue. But solid-state electronic products also fail in service, and often with far greater consequences than a burned-out light bulb. While other books are concerned with the theory of phenomena and the practice of designing useful electrical and electronic products based on them, this book focuses on the largely unheralded activities that insure they possess adequate reliability during use.

1.1.2. Solid-State Devices

The scientific flowering of solid-state device electronics has been due to the synergism between the quantum theory of matter and classical electromagnetic theory. As a result, our scientific understanding of the behavior of electronic, magnetic, and optical materials has dramatically increased. In ways that continue undiminished to the present day,...

Erscheint lt. Verlag	17.11.2014
Sprache	englisch
Themenwelt	Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik
Themenwelt	Technik ► Maschinenbau
ISBN-10	0-08-057552-8 / 0080575528
ISBN-13	978-0-08-057552-0 / 9780080575520

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