Metallurgy and Corrosion Control in Oil and Gas Production

Robert Heidersbach , PhD, is the President of Dr. Rust, Inc., a consulting firm that specializes in corrosion, metallurgy, and materials consulting for a variety of international clients, including oil and gas production, military hardware, construction, litigation, and failure analysis. He was previously a faculty member in ocean engineering at the University of Rhode Island, chemical engineering at Oklahoma State, and metallurgy and materials engineering at California Polytechnic State University.

Preface. 1 Introduction to Oilfi eld Metallurgy and Corrosion Control. Costs. Safety. Environmental Damage. Corrosion Control. References. 2 Chemistry of Corrosion. Electrochemistry of Corrosion. Electrochemical Reactions. Electrolyte Conductivity. Faraday's Law of Electrolysis. Electrode Potentials and Current. Corrosion Rate Expressions. pH. Passivity. Potential-pH (Pourbaix) Diagrams. Summary. References. 3 Corrosive Environments. External Environments. Atmospheric Corrosion. Water as a Corrosive Environment. Soils as Corrosive Environments. Corrosion under Insulation. Internal Environments. Crude Oil. Natural Gas. Oxygen. CO2. H2S. Organic Acids. Scale. Microbially Infl uenced Corrosion (MIC). Mercury. Hydrates. Fluid Flow Effects on Corrosion. Summary. References. 4 Materials. Metallurgy Fundamentals. Crystal Structure. Strengthening Methods. Mechanical Properties. Fracture. Creep. Thermal Expansion. Forming Methods. Wrought versus Cast Structures. Welding. Materials Specifi cations. API. AISI-The American Iron and Steel Institute. ASTM International-formerly the American Society for Testing and Materials. ASME. SAE International. UNS. NACE-The Corrosion Society. Other Organizations. Use of Materials Specifi cations. Carbon Steels, Cast Irons, and Low-Alloy Steels. Classifi cations of Carbon Steel. Strengthening Methods for Carbon Steels. Heat Treatment of Carbon Steels. Quenched and Tempered (Q&T) Steels. Carbon Equivalents and Weldability. Hard Spots. Cleanliness of Steel. Cast Irons. CRAs. Iron-Nickel Alloys. Stainless Steels. Nickel-Based Alloys. Cobalt-Based Alloys. Titanium Alloys. Copper Alloys. Aluminum Alloys. Additional Considerations with CRAs. Polymers, Elastomers, and Composites. References. 5 Forms of Corrosion. Introduction. General Corrosion. Galvanic Corrosion. Galvanic Coupling of Two or More Metals. Area Ratio. Polarity Reversal. Conductivity of the Electrolyte. Control of Galvanic Corrosion. Pitting Corrosion. Occluded Cell Corrosion. Pitting Corrosion Geometry and Stress Concentration. Pitting Initiation. Pitting Resistance Equivalent Numbers (PRENs). Statistics. Prevention of Pitting Corrosion. Crevice Corrosion. Alloy Selection. Filiform Corrosion. Intergranular Corrosion. Stainless Steels. Corrosion Parallel to Forming Directions. Aluminum. Other Alloys. Dealloying. Mechanism. Selective Phase Attack. Susceptible Alloys. Control. Erosion Corrosion. Mechanism. Velocity Effects. Materials. Cavitation. Areas of Concern. Control. Environmentally Induced Cracking. SCC. HE and H2S-Related Cracking. Hydrogen Attack. Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME). Corrosion Fatigue. Other Forms of Corrosion Important to Oilfi eld Operations. Oxygen Attack. Sweet Corrosion. Sour Corrosion. Mesa Corrosion. Top-of-the-Line (TOL) Corrosion. Wire Line Corrosion. Additional Forms of Corrosion Found in Oil and Gas Operations. Additional Comments. References. 6 Corrosion Control. Protective Coatings. Paint Components. Coating Systems. Corrosion Protection by Paint Films. Desirable Properties of Protective Coating Systems. Developments in Coatings Technology. Useful Publications. Surface Preparation. Purposes of Various Coatings. Generic Binder Classifi cations. Coatings Suitable for Various Service Environments or Applications. Coatings Inspection. Areas of Concern and Inspection Concentration. Linings, Wraps, Greases, and Waxes. Coatings Failures. Metallic Coatings. Water Treatment and Corrosion Inhibition. Oil Production Techniques. Water Analysis. Gas Stripping and Vacuum Deaeration. Corrosion Inhibitors. Cathodic Protection. How Cathodic Protection Works. Types of Cathodic Protection. Cathodic Protection Criteria. Inspection and Monitoring. Cathodic Protection Design Procedures. Additional Topics Related to Cathodic Protection. Summary of Cathodic Protection. Standards for Cathodic Protection. References. 7 Inspection, Monitoring, and Testing. Inspection. Visual Inspection (VI). Penetrant Testing (PT). Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT). Ultrasonic Inspection (UT). Radiography (RT). Eddy Current. Positive Material Identifi cation (PMI). Thermography. Additional Remarks about Inspection. Monitoring. Monitoring Probes. Mass-Loss Coupons and Probes. Electrical Resistance (ER) Probes. Electrochemical Corrosion Rate Monitoring Techniques. Hydrogen Probes. Sand Monitoring. Fluid Analysis. Bacterial Growth Monitoring. Additional Comments on Monitoring. Testing. Hydrostatic Testing. Laboratory and Field Trial Testing. References. 8 Oilfi eld Equipment. Drilling and Exploration. Wireline. Coiled Tubing. Wells and Wellhead Equipment. History of Production. Downhole Corrosive Environments. Tubing, Casing, and Capillary Tubing. Inhibitors for Tubing and Casing in Production Wells. Internally Coated Tubing for Oilfi eld Wells. Material and Corrosion Concerns with Artifi cial Lift Systems. Wellheads, Christmas Trees, and Related Equipment. Facilities and Surface Equipment. Piping. Storage Tanks. Heat Exchangers. Other Equipment. Bolting and Fasteners. Flares. Corrosion under Insulation. Pipelines and Flowlines. Pipeline Problems and Failures. Forms of Corrosion Important in Pipelines and Flowlines. Repairs and Derating Due to Corrosion. Casings for Road and Railway Crossings. Pipeline Materials. Hydrotesting. External Corrosion. Internal Corrosion. Inspection and Condition Assessment. References. Index.