TASER(R) Conducted Electrical Weapons: Physiology, Pathology, and Law (eBook)

Contents 6
Contributors 9
Introduction 13
Conducted Electrical Weapons: A User’s Perspective 16
1.1 Emergence of Conducted Electrical Weapons 16
1.2 Resisting Arrest and Excited Delirium 17
1.3 Tragedy Leads to Change 18
1.4 Use of Force and Nonlethal Weapons 19
1.5 Conclusion 23
Notes 24
The Scientific History 25
2.1 The Giants of Electricity and Bioelectricity 26
2.1.1 von Guericke 26
2.1.2 Galvani 26
2.1.3 Benjamin Franklin 27
2.1.4 Coulomb 28
2.1.5 Oersted 28
2.1.6 Ampere 28
2.1.7 Faraday 29
2.1.8 du Bois-Reymond 29
2.2 D’Arsonval 30
2.2.1 The Edison Versus Tesla Arena 31
2.2.2 20th Century Electrophysiology 32
2.2.3 The Electric Fence 32
2.3 Cover’s Challenges 33
References 35
Conducted Electrical Weapons and Resolution of Use-of-Force Encounters 36
3.1 Legal Review 37
3.1.1 Defining Police Use of Force 37
3.1.2 How the US Courts Have Framed Police Use of Force 38
3.1.3 The Use of Force Continuum 39
3.1.4 Measuring Police Use of Force 41
3.1.5 Conducted Electrical Weapons 41
3.2 CEW Effectiveness and Officer/Suspect Injuries 42
3.2.1 The Use of Force Report 42
3.2.2 Data Collection 43
3.2.3 Analysis of the Data 44
3.2.4 Application of the CEW 45
3.2.5 CEW Drive-Stun (Touch-Stun) 46
3.2.6 Suspect and Officer Injuries 47
3.2.7 CEW’s Potential to Reduce Injuries 48
3.3 Limitations 48
3.4 Conclusion 48
Notes 49
Nonlethal Weapons: The Broader Context 53
References 61
Transcutaneous Muscle Stimulation 63
5.1 The TASER CEW Waveforms 63
5.2 Theory and Applications of Muscle Stimulation by Electric Fields and Currents 65
5.2.1 Electrical Stimulation of Motor and Sensory Nerves 65
5.2.2 Computer Modeling of the M26 and X26 Waveforms and Expected Stimulation of Peripheral Motor Nerves as a Function of Waveform Shape 68
5.2.3 Skeletal Muscle Force Recruitment by Electrical Stimulation 71
5.3 Conclusions and Summary 72
References 74
Current Flow in the Human Body 75
6.1 Modeling of CEW Currents in the Human Body 76
6.1.1 Skeletal Muscle Activation by Pulsed Electric Fields 77
6.1.2 FE Modeling of J and E Distributions for Neuromuscular Capture 78
6.1.3 FE Modeling of J and E Distributions in the Heart 80
6.1.4 Neuromuscular Stimulation 82
6.1.5 Current Density Distributions in the Heart 87
6.1.6 Implantable Pacemakers 89
6.2 Discussion 93
References 94
Animal Studies 97
7.1 Stun Guns Applied to Exposed Pig Hearts 98
7.2 High Multiples of TASER CEW Charge Applied to Skin of Pigs 98
7.3 Cocaine Effect on VF Threshold 100
7.4 Acute Epinephrine Effects 104
7.5 Effects of 80-second Exposures 106
7.6 Effect of Dart-to-Heart Distance 108
7.7 Effects on pH and SpO2 114
7.8 Effects with No Acidosis 117
7.9 Applying the Animal Data 118
7.10 Conclusions 119
References 119
CEW Research Models: Animal and Human Studies 121
8.1 Animal Versus Human 121
8.2 Animal Studies 125
8.3 Human Studies 126
References 129
Cardiac Arrhythmias 131
9.1 Causes of Sudden Cardiac Death 132
9.2 Electrical Stimulation of an Ectopic Heartbeat 133
9.3 Fundamental Law of Electrostimulation 135
9.4 Electrical Stimulation of Immediate VF 138
9.5 Electrical Stimulation of Delayed VF 138
9.6 Conclusion 140
References 140
Electrocardiographic Effects of the CEW 144
10.1 Human Data 145
10.2 Animal Data 147
10.3 Conclusion 150
References 150
Serum and Skin Effects of CEW Application 153
11.1 Physiology Review 153
11.2 Biomarker Research 155
11.2.1 Troponin I 156
11.2.2 Potassium 156
11.2.3 Lactate 157
11.2.4 Myoglobin and Creatine Phosphokinase 158
11.3 Conclusion 159
References 160
Echocardiographic Effects of the CEW 162
12.1 Animal Studies 162
12.2 Human Studies 163
12.3 Conclusions 170
References 170
Rhabdomyolysis 171
13.1 Physiology of Rhabdomyolysis 171
13.2 Relationship of Rhabdomyolysis with CEW Exposure 172
13.2.1 Animal Data 173
13.2.2 Human Data 173
13.3 Conclusion 173
References 174
Effects of CEWs on Respiration 175
14.1 Respiratory Physiology 175
14.1.1 Cellular Respiration 178
14.1.2 Anatomy 178
14.2 The CEW Interaction 179
14.2.1 Theory of Injury 179
14.2.2 Animal Data with CEW Exposure 180
14.2.3 Human Data 180
14.3 Conclusion 184
References 185
Neuroendocrine Effects of CEWs 187
15.1 Human Stress Response 188
15.2 The Possible Role of the CEW 190
15.3 Conclusion 192
References 192
Electroporation of Cardiac and Nerve Cells 194
16.1 Cellular Responses to Strong Electric Fields 195
16.2 Electroporation Assessment via Shock-Induced Changes of Transmembrane Action Potential Morphology 197
16.3 Imaging Electroporation Damage Patterns via Membrane Impermeable Fluorescent Dyes 200
16.4 CEW Currents 203
16.5 Conclusion 204
References 205
Eye and Head Injuries 208
17.1 Eye and Adnexal Anatomy 208
17.2 Eye Trauma 210
17.3 Eye Injuries by Conductive Electrical Weapons 210
17.4 Management of CEW Ocular Injuries 213
17.5 Head Injuries 213
17.6 Conclusion 215
References 215
CEW Effects with Illegal Stimulant Intoxication 217
References 222
Alcohol and the CEW 224
19.1 Alcohol Physiology 224
19.2 Alcohol and CEW 225
19.3 Studies of Alcohol and CEW Use 226
19.4 Conclusion 226
References 227
Conducted Electrical Weapons and Implantable Cardiac Devices 228
20.1 Case Reports 229
20.2 Animal Studies 229
20.3 Conclusions 238
References 238
Risk Management and the CEW 240
21.1 On-Duty Injuries 241
21.2 Number of Work Days Lost Due to ODI 241
21.3 Additional Costs 242
21.4 Sources of Injuries 242
21.5 Overall Annual ODI Cost 243
21.6 Potential Savings of Full CEW Deployment 243
21.7 Implementation 244
21.7.1 Why Include All These Specialists in the Community? 245
The New York City Experience 246
22.1 National Trends and Experience 246
22.1.1 Effectiveness 247
22.1.2 Safety 248
22.2 The NYPD Data 249
22.2.1 Research Design and Data 249
22.2.2 Analysis 250
22.2.3 Limitations 250
22.3 Results 251
22.3.1 Prevalence 251
22.3.2 Suspects 252
22.3.2.1 Demographics 253
22.3.2.2 Suspects’ Emotional and Physical State 253
22.3.2.3 Possession of Weapons 254
22.3.2.4 Physical Violence 254
22.3.2.5 Officer Characteristics 255
22.3.3 Incidents 255
22.3.3.1 Types of Encounters 255
22.3.3.2 TASER CEW Deployment 256
22.3.4 Outcomes 257
22.3.4.1 Reducing the Potential for a Violent Outcome 258
22.3.4.2 Fatalities 259
22.3.5 Discussion 260
22.4 Conclusions 261
References 261
Impact of CEW and Other Types of Force and Resistance on Officer and Suspect Injuries 262
23.1 Use of Force-Related Injuries 263
23.1.1 Suspect Injury 264
23.1.2 Officer Injury 265
23.1.3 The Impact of Nonlethal Weapons on Injuries 266
23.1.4 OC Spray 266
23.1.5 Conducted Electrical Weapons 267
23.2 Data and Methods 268
23.2.1 Richland County Sheriff’s Department (RCSD) 268
23.2.2 RCSD Variables 269
23.2.3 RCSD Models 271
23.2.4 Miami-Dade Police Department (MDPD) 272
23.2.5 DPD Variables 272
23.2.6 MDPD Models 273
23.3 Findings 274
23.3.1 RCSD Results 274
23.3.2 MDPD Results 277
23.4 Discussion 280
23.4.1 Future Research Needs 282
References 283
Field Statistics Overview 287
24.1 Total Human Exposures 287
24.1.1 Field Usage Exposures 287
24.1.2 Training Exposures 289
24.1.3 Impact on Officer and Suspect Injuries 291
24.1.4 Officer Injuries 291
24.1.5 Suspect Injuries 291
24.2 Are Multiple Exposures More Dangerous? 293
24.3 How Often Is the CEW Blamed as a Cause of Death? 294
24.3.1 Possible Areas for Confusion 295
24.3.1.1 Electrocution 295
24.3.1.2 Long Duration Shocks 295
24.3.1.3 Effects of Electrical Current on Breathing 297
24.3.1.4 Drug Dysynergies 297
24.3.1.5 Autopsy Analysis 297
24.4 Results 298
24.5 Conclusions 300
References 300
Sudden In-Custody Death 305
25.1 Historical Perspective 307
25.2 Associated and Unassociated Factors 307
25.2.1 Conducted Electrical Weapons 307
25.2.2 Pepper (Capsicum) Spray 309
25.2.3 Stimulant Drugs 310
25.2.4 Underlying Cardiac Disease 311
25.2.5 Restraint Procedures and Positional Asphyxia 312
25.2.6 Dehydration, Hyperthermia, and Metabolic Acidosis 313
25.2.7 Gender, Weight, and Ethnicity 314
25.3 Conclusions 314
References 315
Stimulant Abuse and Sudden Cardiac Death 318
26.1 Myocardial Remodeling 319
26.2 Myocardial Hypertrophy and Ischemic Sudden Death 321
26.3 Myocardial Hypertrophy and QT dispersion 322
26.4 The Theory of ‘‘Multiple Hits’’ 323
26.5 Excited Delirium and Sudden Death 323
26.6 Conclusions 325
References 325
The Systemic Role of Illicit Drugs and Their Toxicology 329
27.1 Cocaine 330
27.1.1 Mechanism of Action 330
27.2 Methamphetamine 331
27.2.1 Mechanism of Action 332
27.3 Phencyclidine 332
27.3.1 Mechanism of Action 333
27.4 Excited Delirium Syndrome 333
27.4.1 Excited Delirium Syndrome: Mechanism of Death 336
27.4.2 Hypokalemia and Sudden Cardiac Death 337
27.4.2.1 The Role of Illicit Drugs 338
27.5 Specimen Collection 340
27.5.1 Urine 342
27.5.2 Blood 343
27.5.3 Vitreous Humor 343
27.5.4 Tissue and Hair 343
27.5.4.1 Hair 344
27.5.5 Specimen Stability 344
27.6 Drug Screening 344
References 346
Excited Delirium Syndrome 348
28.1 Restraint-Related Death 350
28.2 Cause of Death in EDS 353
28.2.1 Polymorphism 355
28.2.2 Postexercise Peril 355
28.2.3 Drugs 357
28.2.4 Treatment of Excited Delirium 358
28.3 Terminology Confusion 361
References 362
Biochemical Brain Markers in Excited Delirium Deaths 365
29.1 Differential Diagnosis of Drug-Induced Psychotic Disorders 365
29.2 Cocaine Delirium and Sudden Death 367
29.3 Defective Signaling at the Dopamine Synapse 368
29.4 Heath Shock Proteins and Hyperthermia 373
29.5 Conclusions 374
References 375
Sudden Unexpected Death in Custody (SUDIC) 378
30.1 Before the Autopsy 380
30.1.1 Scene Where Vital Signs Were Lost 380
30.1.2 Examination at the Hospital 380
30.2 The Autopsy 382
30.2.1 Some Special Issues 383
30.3 Case Study 384
30.4 Death Certification 386
30.5 Conclusion 386
References 387
Legal Basics for the CEW 388
31.1 General Accountability Themes 389
31.2 Accountability Sanctions 390
31.2.1 Criminal Sanctions 390
31.2.2 Civil Accountability 390
31.2.3 Administrative Accountability 391
31.3 CEW Usage by Non-LEOs 391
31.3.1 Use of a CEW by a Private Person 392
31.3.2 Nonsworn LEOs (Private Security Officers) 392
31.4 Government Empowered CEW Use 393
31.4.1 Constitutional Use of Force Standards 394
31.4.1.1 ‘‘Objective Reasonableness’’ Standard of the 4th Amendment 394
31.4.1.2 ‘‘Cruel and Unusual Punishment’’ Standard of the 8th Amendment 396
31.4.1.3 ‘‘Shocking to the Conscience’’ Standard of the 14th Amendment 396
31.5 US Appellate Court CEW Case Law 397
31.5.1 4th Amendment ‘‘Objective Reasonableness’’ Standard 397
31.5.1.1 CEW Use on a Restrained Criminal Suspect 397
31.5.1.2 Related Pepper Spray Cases 398
31.5.2 8th Amendment ‘‘Cruel and Unusual Punishment’’ Standard 398
31.5.3 14th Amendment ‘‘Shocking to the Conscience’’ Standard 399
31.6 US Lower Court CEW Cases 399
31.6.1 4th Amendment ‘‘Objective Reasonableness’’ Standard 399
31.6.1.1 CEW Use Found Reasonable 400
31.6.1.2 CEW Use Found Potentially Unreasonable 401
31.6.2 8th and 14th Amendment Cases 403
31.7 Conclusions 403
Notes 404
Science and Logic Meet the Law 406
32.1 Case Study: The Graduation Party 406
32.1.1 What Killed Richard? 407
32.1.2 Facts and Evidence for the Juror 408
32.1.3 Experts and Their Testimonies 408
32.2 The Daubert Trilogy 409
32.2.1 Daubert v. Merrill Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc 410
32.2.2 General Electric Co. v. Joiner 411
32.2.3 Kuhmo Tire, Co., Ltd. v. Carmichael 411
32.2.4 Federal Rules of Evidence 411
32.2.5 Education of the Jury 412
32.2.5.1 CSI Effect 412
32.3 Scientific Research 413
32.3.1 Literature Review 413
32.3.2 Quantitative Research 413
32.3.3 Qualitative Research 414
32.4 Theories, Laws, and Models 414
32.4.1 Theories 414
32.4.2 Models 415
32.4.3 Laws 415
32.5 The Scientific Method 415
32.5.1 Human Subject Research Guidelines 417
32.5.2 Population and Sample Size 417
32.5.3 Reliability and Validity 418
32.5.4 Statistical Versus Clinical Significance 418
32.5.5 Clinical (Practical) Significance 418
32.5.6 Rate of Error 419
32.5.7 Fallacies 419
32.5.8 Causation 420
32.5.9 Temporality as Causation 420
32.5.9.1 Felony Murder Rule Exception 421
32.5.9.2 Correlation as Causation 422
32.5.9.3 Association as Causation 422
32.5.9.4 Necessary and Sufficient for Causation 422
32.6 Back to the Case Study 423
32.6.1 Applying Science and Law to the Case Study 423
32.6.2 Claims Versus Critical Thinking 423
32.6.3 The ‘‘Straw’’ Causation Theory 424
32.6.4 Temporal or Association Causation Theory 424
32.6.5 Probabilistic Causation 425
32.6.6 It Is in Print Fallacy 426
32.6.7 Bias and Causation Theory 426
32.6.8 Guessing as a Causation Theory 427
32.7 Conclusions 427
References 428
Appendix A Excited Delirium Checklist 431
Appendix B Electrocution Diagnosis Checklist 438
Index 443