Nanotribology and Nanomechanics (eBook)

Dr. Bharat Bhushan received an M.S. in mechanical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1971, an M.S. in mechanics and a Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1973 and 1976, respectively, an MBA from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, NY in 1980, Doctor Technicae from the University of Trondheim at Trondheim, Norway in 1990, a Doctor of Technical Sciences from the Warsaw University of Technology at Warsaw, Poland in 1996, and Doctor Honouris Causa from the National Academy of Sciences at Gomel, Belarus in 2000. He is a registered professional engineer (mechanical). He is presently an Ohio Eminent Scholar and The Howard D. Winbigler Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate Research Faculty Advisor in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and the Director of the Nanotribology Laboratory for Information Storage & MEMS/NEMS (NLIM) at the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. He is an internationally recognized expert of tribology and mechanics on the macro- to nanoscales, and is one of the most prolific authors. He is considered by some a pioneer of the tribology and mechanics of magnetic storage devices and a leading researcher in the fields of nanotribology and nanomechanics using scanning probe microscopy and applications to micro/nanotechnology. He has authored 5 technical books, more than 50 handbook chapters, more than 500 technical papers in referred journals, and more than 60 technical reports, edited more than 25 books, and holds 16 U.S. patents. He is co-editor of Springer NanoScience and Technology and co-editor of Microsystem Technologies – Micro- & Nanosystems and Information Storage & Processing Systems (formerly called Journal of Information Storage and Processing Systems). He has given more than 250 invited presentations on five continents and more than 60 keynote/plenary addresses at major international conferences. Dr. Bhushan is an accomplished organizer. He organized the first symposium on Tribology and Mechanics of Magnetic Storage Systems in 1984 and the first international symposium on Advances in Information Storage Systems in 1990, both of which are now held annually. He is the founder of an ASME Information Storage and Processing Systems Division founded in 1993 and served as the founding chair during 1993-1998. His biography has been listed in over two dozen Who's Who books including Who's Who in the World and has received more than two dozen awards for his contributions to science and technology from professional societies, industry, and U.S. government agencies. He is also the recipient of various international fellowships including the Alexander von Humboldt Research Prize for Senior Scientists, Max Planck Foundation Research Award for Outstanding Foreign Scientists, and the Fulbright Senior Scholar Award. He is a foreign member of the International Academy of Engineering (Russia), Byelorussian Academy of Engineering and Technology and the Academy of Triboengineering of Ukraine, a honorary member of the Society of Tribologists of Belarus, a fellow of ASME, IEEE, STLE, and the New York Academy of Sciences, and a member of ASEE, Sigma Xi and Tau Beta Pi. Dr. Bhushan has previously worked for the R & D Division of Mechanical Technology Inc., Latham, NY; the Technology Services Division of SKF Industries Inc., King of Prussia, PA; the General Products Division Laboratory of IBM Corporation, Tucson, AZ; and the Almaden Research Center of IBM Corporation, San Jose, CA.

Foreword 5
Preface 7
Contents 11
List of Contributors 27
List of Abbreviations 31
1 Introduction – Measurement Techniques and Applications 35
1.1 Definition and History of Tribology 35
1.2 Industrial Significance of Tribology 37
1.3 Origins and Significance of Micro/Nanotribology 38
1.4 Measurement Techniques 40
1.5 Magnetic Storage Devices and MEMS/NEMS 57
1.6 Role of Micro/Nanotribology and Micro/Nanomechanics in Magnetic Storage Devices and MEMS/ NEMS 64
1.7 Organization of the Book 65
References 65
Part I Scanning Probe Microscopy 69
2 Scanning Probe Microscopy – Principle of Operation, Instrumentation, and Probes 71
2.1 Introduction 71
2.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscope 73
2.3 Atomic Force Microscope 80
2.4 AFM Instrumentation and Analyses 108
References 137
3 Probes in Scanning Microscopies 145
3.1 Introduction 146
3.2 Atomic Force Microscopy 147
3.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 163
References 165
4 Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy and Related Topics 169
4.1 Introduction 169
4.2 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 170
4.3 Applications to Semiconductors 180
4.4 Applications to Insulators 189
4.5 Applications to Molecules 199
References 205
5 Low-Temperature Scanning Probe Microscopy 213
5.1 Introduction 214
5.2 Microscope Operation at Low Temperatures 215
5.3 Instrumentation 216
5.4 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy 221
5.5 Scanning Force Microscopy and Spectroscopy 240
References 259
6 Dynamic Modes of Atomic Force Microscopy 269
6.1 Motivation: Measurement of a Single Atomic Bond 270
6.2 Harmonic Oscillator: A Model System for Dynamic AFM 276
6.3 Dynamic AFM Operational Modes 279
6.4 296
Control 296
6.5 Dissipation Processes Measured with Dynamic AFM 302
6.6 Conclusion 307
References 308
7 Molecular Recognition Force Microscopy: From Simple Bonds to Complex Energy Landscapes 313
7.1 Introduction 313
7.2 Ligand Tip Chemistry 314
7.3 Immobilization of Receptors onto Probe Surfaces 317
7.4 Single-Molecule Recognition Force Detection 319
7.5 Principles of Molecular Recognition Force Spectroscopy 322
7.6 Recognition Force Spectroscopy: From Isolated Molecules to BiologicalMembranes 325
7.7 Recognition Imaging 334
7.8 Concluding Remarks 337
References 337
Part II Nanotribology and Nanomechanics: Fundamental Studies 343
8 Nanotribology, Nanomechanics and Materials Characterization 345
8.1 Introduction 345
8.2 Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement Techniques 348
8.3 Surface Imaging, Friction and Adhesion 364
8.4 Wear, Scratching, Local Deformation, and Fabrication/ Machining 406
8.5 Indentation 419
8.6 Boundary Lubrication 426
8.7 Closure 442
References 444
9 Surface Forces and Nanorheology of Molecularly Thin Films 451
9.1 Introduction: Types of Surface Forces 451
9.2 Methods Used to Study Surface Forces 454
9.3 Normal Forces Between Dry (Unlubricated) Surfaces 461
9.4 Normal Forces Between Surfaces in Liquids 466
9.5 Adhesion and Capillary Forces 482
9.6 Introduction: Di.erent Modes of Friction and the Limits of Continuum Models 489
9.7 Relationship Between Adhesion and Friction Between Dry ( Unlubricated and Solid Boundary Lubricated) Surfaces 492
9.8 Liquid Lubricated Surfaces 509
9.9 Effects of Nanoscale Texture on Friction 527
References 531
10 Interfacial Forces and Spectroscopic Study of Confined Fluids 551
10.1 Introduction 551
10.2 Hydrodynamic Force of Fluids Flowing in Microto Nanofluidics: A Question About No- Slip Boundary Condition 552
10.3 Hydrophobic Interaction and Water at a Hydrophobicity Interface 562
10.4 Ultrafast Spectroscopic Study of Confined Fluids: Combining Ultra- Fast Spectroscopy with Force Apparatus 571
10.5 Contrasting Friction with Di.usion in Molecularly Thin Films 577
10.6 Diffusion of Confined Molecules During Shear 582
10.7 Summary 584
References 585
11 Friction and Wear on the Atomic Scale 591
11.1 Friction Force Microscopy in Ultrahigh Vacuum 591
11.2 The Tomlinson Model 599
11.3 Friction Experiments on the Atomic Scale 603
11.4 Thermal Effects on Atomic Friction 608
11.5 Geometry E.ects in Nanocontacts 616
11.6 Wear on the Atomic Scale 622
11.7 Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Atomic Friction and Wear 625
11.8 Energy Dissipation in Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy 629
11.9 Conclusion 634
References 634
12 Nanomechanical Properties of Solid Surfaces and Thin Films 641
12.1 Introduction 641
12.2 Instrumentation 642
12.3 Data Analysis 651
12.4 Modes of Deformation 666
12.5 Thin Films and Multilayers 673
12.6 Developing Areas 680
References 681
13 Computer Simulations of Nanometer-Scale Indentation and Friction 689
13.1 Introduction 689
13.2 Computational Details 691
13.3 Indentation 698
13.4 Friction and Lubrication 722
13.5 Conclusions 761
References 761
14 Mechanical Properties of Nanostructures 775
14.1 Introduction 776
14.2 Experimental Techniques for Measurement of Mechanical Properties of Nanostructures 778
14.3 Experimental Results and Discussion 786
14.4 Finite Element Analysis of Nanostructures with Roughness and Scratches 807
14.5 Closure 817
References 819
15 Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties and Tribology 825
15.1 Nomenclature 825
15.2 Introduction 827
15.3 Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties 830
15.4 Scale Effect in Surface Roughness and Contact Parameters 838
15.5 Scale Effect in Friction 843
15.6 Scale Effect in Wear 862
15.7 Scale Effect in Interface Temperature 863
15.8 Closure 865
15.A Statistics of Particle Size Distribution 866
References 871
Part III Molecularly-Thick Films for Lubrication 875
16 Nanotribology of Ultrathin and Hard Amorphous Carbon Films 877
16.1 Introduction 877
16.2 Description of Common Deposition Techniques 882
16.3 Chemical and Physical Coating Characterization 888
16.4 Micromechanical and Tribological Coating Characterization 896
16.5 Closure 927
References 928
17 Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAMs) for Controlling Adhesion, Friction, and Wear 935
17.1 Introduction 935
17.2 A Brief Organic Chemistry Primer 940
17.3 Self-Assembled Monolayers: Substrates, Spacer Chains and End Groups in the Molecular Chains
17.4 Tribological Properties of SAMs 952
17.5 Closure 985
References 987
18 Nanoscale Boundary Lubrication Studies 993
18.1 Introduction 993
18.2 Lubricants Details 994
18.3 Nanodeformation, Molecular Conformation, and Lubricant Spreading 997
18.4 Boundary Lubrication Studies 1000
18.5 Closure 1022
References 1023
Part IV Biomimetics 1027
19 Lotus Effect: Roughness-Induced Superhydrophobic Surfaces 1029
19.1 Introduction 1029
19.2 Modeling of Contact Angle for a Liquid in Contact with a Rough Surface 1035
19.3 Lotus-Effect andWater-Repellent Surfaces in Nature 1051
19.4 Wetting of Micro- and Nanopatterned Surfaces 1065
19.5 Role of Hierarchical Roughness for Superhydrophobicity 1090
19.6 How to Make a Superhydrophobic Surface 1091
19.7 Closure 1099
References 1099
20 Gecko Feet: Natural Hairy Attachment Systems for Smart Adhesion – Mechanism, Modeling and Development of Bio- Inspired Materials 1107
20.1 Introduction 1107
20.2 Hairy Attachment Systems 1108
20.3 Tokay Gecko 1111
20.4 Attachment Mechanisms 1118
20.5 Experimental Adhesion Test Techniques and Data 1121
20.6 Adhesion Modeling 1126
20.7 Modeling of Biomimetic Fibrillar Structures 1140
20.8 Fabrication of Biomimetric Gecko Skin 1152
20.9 Closure 1159
20.A Typical Rough Surfaces 1161
References 1164
Part V Applications 1169
21 Micro/Nanotribology and Micro/Nanomechanics of Magnetic Storage Devices 1171
21.1 Introduction 1172
21.2 Experimental 1176
21.3 Surface Roughness 1180
21.4 Friction and Adhesion 1185
21.5 Scratching and Wear 1190
21.6 Indentation 1216
21.7 Lubrication 1221
21.8 Closure 1226
References 1228
22 Nanotribology and Materials Characterization of MEMS/ NEMS and BioMEMS/ BioNEMS Materials and Devices 1233
22.1 Introduction 1233
22.2 Tribological Studies of Silicon and Related Materials 1258
22.3 Lubrication Studies for MEMS/NEMS 1269
22.4 Tribological Studies of BiologicalMolecules on Silicon- Based Surfaces and of Coated Polymer Surfaces 1279
22.5 Nanopatterned Surfaces 1287
22.6 Component-Level Studies 1295
22.7 Conclusion 1312
22.A Appendix Micro/Nanofabrication Methods 1313
References 1319
23 Mechanical Properties of Micromachined Structures 1331
23.1 Measuring Mechanical Properties of Films on Substrates 1331
23.2 Micromachined Structures for Measuring Mechanical Properties 1333
23.3 Measurements of Mechanical Properties 1348
References 1354
24 Structural, Nanomechanical, and Nanotribological Characterization of Human Hair Using Atomic Force Microscopy and Nanoindentation 1359
24.1 Introduction 1359
24.2 Human Hair, Skin, and Hair Care Products 1364
24.3 Experimental 1379
24.4 Structural Characterization Using an AFM 1397
24.5 Nanomechanical Characterization Using Nanoindentation, Nanoscratch, and AFM 1409
24.6 Multi-Scale Tribological Characterization 1436
24.7 Conditioner Thickness Distribution and Binding Interactions on Hair Surface 1485
24.8 Surface Potential Studies of Human Hair Using Kelvin Probe Microscopy 1499
24.9 Closure 1510
24.A Shampoo and Conditioner Treatment Procedure 1513
24.B Conditioner Thickness Approximation 1514
References 1515
The Editor 1521
Index 1523