Handbook of Systems Engineering and Management

Andrew P. Sage , PhD, became the First American Bank Professor of Information Technology and Engineering at George Mason University and the first Dean of the School of Information Technology and Engineering. Dr. Sage is a member of the National Academy of Engineering, as well as a Fellow of the IEEE, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and INCOSE. He is the Editor of the Wiley Series in Systems Engineering and Management and of Wiley's Journal of Systems Engineering . William B. Rouse , PhD, is a professor in the School of Industrial and Systems Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology and holds a joint appointment within the College of Computing. He also serves as Executive Director of the Tennenbaum Institute, a campus-wide research center focused on complex organizational systems. Dr. Rouse is a member of the National Academy of Engineering, as well as a Fellow of the IEEE, the International Council on Systems Engineering, the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences, and the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.

Preface xvii Contributors xxi An Introduction to Systems Engineering and Systems Management 1 Andrew P. Sage and William B. Rouse Systems Engineering 2 Importance of Technical Direction and Systems Management 6 Additional Definitions of Systems Engineering 9 Life-Cycle Methodologies, or Processes, for Systems Engineering 23 The Rest of the Handbook of Systems Engineering and Management 31 Knowledge Map of the Systems Engineering and Management Handbook 50 The Many Dimensions of Systems Engineering 55 People, Organizations, Technology, and Architectures and System Families 56 References 62 1 Systems Engineering Life Cycles: Life Cycles for Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation; Acquisition; and Planning and Marketing 65 F. G. Patterson, Jr. 1.1 Introduction 65 1.2 Classification of Organizational Processes 69 1.3 Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation Life Cycles 72 1.4 System Acquisition or Production Life Cycles 76 1.5 The Planning and Marketing Life Cycle 86 1.6 Software Acquisition life-Cycle Models 88 1.7 Trends in Systems Engineering Life Cycles 96 1.8 Conclusion 108 2 Systems Engineering Management: The Multidisciplinary Discipline 117 Aaron J. Shenhar and Brian Sauser 2.1 Introduction 117 2.2 Defining Systems Engineering Management 118 2.3 Activities and Roles of the Systems Engineering Manager 120 2.4 Toward a Comprehensive Framework for the Implementation of Systems Engineering Management: The Four-Dimensional "Diamond Taxonomy"-NTCP 123 2.5 Different Systems Engineering Management Roles for Various Project Types 131 2.6 The Skills, Tools, and Disciplines Involved in Systems Engineering Management 145 2.7 Developing Educational and Training Programs in Systems Engineering Management 147 2.8 Conclusion 150 3 Risk Management 155 Yacov Y. Haimes 3.1 The Process of Risk Assessment and Management 155 3.2 The Holistic Approach to Risk Analysis 157 3.3 Risk of Extreme Events 167 3.4 The Partitioned Multiobjective Risk Method 171 3.5 The Characteristics of Risk in Human-Engineered Systems 180 3.6 Selected Cases of Risk-Based Engineering Problems 181 3.7 Conclusion 200 4 Discovering System Requirements 205 A. Terry Bahill and Frank F. Dean 4.1 Introduction 205 4.2 Stating The Problem 205 4.3 What Are Requirements? 209 4.4 Qualities of a Good Requirement 210 4.5 Characterization of Requirements 216 4.6 The Requirements Development and Management Process 227 4.7 Fitting the Requirements Process into the Systems Engineering Process 243 4.8 Related Items 245 4.9 Requirements Volatility 247 4.10 Inspections 248 4.11 A Heuristic Example of Requirements 249 4.12 The Hybrid Process for Capturing Requirements 250 4.13 Conclusion 264 5 Configuration Management 267 Peggy S. Brouse 5.1 Introduction 267 5.2 Configuration Management within the System Life Cycle 271 5.3 Configuration Status Accounting and Configuration Auditing 281 5.4 Configuration Management Responsibilities 283 5.5 Configuration Management in Process Improvement 283 5.6 Configuration Management Tools 286 5.7 Conclusion 289 6 Cost Management 291 Benjamin S. Blanchard 6.1 Introduction 291 6.2 Life-Cycle Costing 291 6.3 Functional Economic Analysis 298 6.4 Work Breakdown Structure 301 6.5 Activity-Based Costing 306 6.6 Cost and Effectiveness Analysis 310 6.7 System Evaluation and Cost Control 320 6.8 Conclusion 321 7 Total Quality Management 325 James L. Melsa 7.1 Introduction 325 7.2 Historical Background of the Quality Movement 328 7.3 Total Quality Management Tools 330 7.4 Total Quality Management Philosophies 332 7.5 Conclusion 349 8 Reliability, Maintainability, and Availability 361 Michael Pecht 8.1 Introduction and Motivation 361 8.2 Evolution of RMA Engineering 362 8.3 Allocation 363 8.4 Design for Reliability 363 8.5 System Reliability Assessment Modeling 385 8.6 Fault Trees 390 8.7 Design for Maintainability 390 8.8 Data Collection, Classification, and Reporting 392 8.9 Warranties and Life-Cycle Costs 393 8.10 Operational Readiness and Availability 393 9 Concurrent Engineering 397 Andrew Kusiak and Nick Larson 9.1 Introduction 397 9.2 Concurrent Engineering and the Product Life Cycle 398 9.3 Building a Concurrent Engineering Environment: A Systems Engineering Perspective 399 9.4 Managing a Concurrent Engineering Environment: Tools and Techniques 425 9.5 Implementation 433 9.6 Concurrnt Engineering in the Future 434 9.7 Conclusion 435 10 Engineering the Enterprise as a System 441 William B. Rouse 10.1 Introduction 441 10.2 Essential Challenges 442 10.3 Enterprise Transformation 445 10.4 Enterprises as Systems 451 10.5 Transformation Framework 454 10.6 Implications for Systems Engineering and Management 457 10.7 Conclusion 458 11 Standards in Systems Engineering 463 Stephen C. Lowell 11.1 Introduction 463 11.2 Definition 463 11.3 Historical Highlights of Standards in the United States 463 11.4 Reasons for Using Specifications and Standards 465 11.5 Proper Application of Specifications and Standards 467 11.6 Selection and Development of Specifications and Standards 468 11.7 Useful Standards in the Systems Engineering Process 477 11.8 Locating and Obtaining Specifications and Standards 477 12 System Architectures 479 Alexander H. Levis 12.1 Introduction 479 12.2 Definition of Architectures 481 12.3 Structured Analysis Approach 483 12.4 The Executable Model 491 12.5 Physical Architecture 493 12.6 Performance Evaluation 495 12.7 Object-Oriented Approach 496 12.8 Architecture Evaluation 501 12.9 The DoD Architecture Framework 503 12.10 Conclusion 504 13 Systems Design 507 K. Preston White, Jr. 13.1 Introduction 507 13.2 What is Systems Design? 508 13.3 Steps in the Design process 508 13.4 Design Tools 517 13.5 A Brief History of Recent Design Theory 519 13.6 Design and Concurrent Engineering 521 14 Systems Integration 535 James D. Palmer 14.1 Introduction 535 14.2 Systems Integration in Large, Complex Engineered Systems and a Systems Integration Life Cycle 538 14.3 Systems Integration Management and Technical Skills and Training Requirements 542 14.4 Systems Integration Strategy for Success 545 14.5 The Audit Trail 552 14.6 Quality Assurance in Systems Integration 555 14.7 Subcontractor Management for Systems Integration 559 14.8 Subsystem Integration and Delivery 561 14.9 Risk Management 564 14.10 The Lead Systems Integrator 568 15 Systematic Measurements 575 Andrew P. Sage 15.1 Introduction 575 15.2 Organizational Needs for Systematic Measurement 577 15.3 Measurement Needs 578 15.4 Organizational Measurements 587 15.5 Metrics from Widely Accepted Standards, Awards, and Government Requirements 590 15.6 Selected Measurement Approaches 609 15.7 Systematic Measurements of Customer Satisfaction 617 15.8 Systematic Measurements of Effort, Cost, and Schedule 625 15.9 Systematic Measurements of Defects 625 15.10 Metrics Process Maturity 626 15.11 Information Technology and Organizational Performance Measurement 631 15.12 Conclusion 639 16 Human Supervisory Control 645 Thomas B. Sheridan 16.1 Introduction 645 16.2 Task Analysis and Function Allocation 648 16.3 The Phases of Supervisory Control 652 16.4 Examples of Supervisory Control Applications and Problems 662 16.5 Adaptive Automation 674 16.6 Overview Considerations of Supervisory Control 676 16.7 Conclusion 685 17 Designing for Cognitive Task Performance 691 Judith M. Orasanu and Michael G. Shafto 17.1 Introduction 691 17.2 Cognitive Constraints on System Design 693 17.3 Reduction to Practice 705 17.4 Conclusion 715 18 Modeling Organizational and Individual Decision Making 723 Kathleen M. Carley and Terrill L. Frantz 18.1 Introduction 723 18.2 Computational Organization Theory 726 18.3 Modeling the Individual 730 18.4 Modeling the Organization 741 18.5 Computational Tools 745 18.6 Implications for Systems Engineering and Management 747 18.7 Conclusion 748 19 Organizational Simulation 763 William B. Rouse and Douglas A. Bodner 19.1 Introduction 763 19.2 Scope of Organizational Simulation 764 19.3 State of the Art 766 19.4 Case Studies 768 19.5 Conclusion 790 20 Organizational Change: The Role of Culture and Leadership 793 Charles S. Harris, Betty K. Hart, and Joyce Shields 20.1 Introduction 793 20.2 Setting the Context: Culture 795 20.3 The Role of Leadership 800 20.4 Applying the Change Model 804 20.5 Profiles in Change 824 20.6 Conclusion 831 21 Model-Based Design of Human Interaction with Complex Systems 837 Christine M. Mitchell and David W. Roberts 21.1 Introduction 837 21.2 Human Interaction with Complex Systems: The Systems, Tasks, and Users 837 21.3 Emerging Technology and Design 838 21.4 Human-System Interaction Issues 840 21.5 Model-Based Design: Operator 847 21.6 Model-Based Design Using the Operator Function Model 860 21.7 Ofm-Based Design: Illustrative Applications 875 21.8 Team-OFM 889 21.9 Basic Research and Operational Relevance to Real-World Design 894 21.10 Conclusion 899 22 Evaluation of Systems 909 James M. Tien 22.1 Introduction 909 22.2 Evaluation Field 910 22.3 Evaluation Framework 911 22.4 Evaluation Design Elements 914 22.5 Evaluation Modeling 918 22.6 Conclusion 920 23 Systems Reengineering 923 Andrew P. Sage 23.1 Introduction 923 23.2 Definition of and Perspectives on Reengineering 925 23.3 Overview of Reengineering Approaches 931 23.4 Conclusion 1013 24 Issue Formulation 1027 James E. Armstrong, Jr. 24.1 Introduction: Problem and Issue Formulation 1027 24.2 Situation Assessment 1027 24.3 Problem or Issue Identification 1032 24.4 Value System Design 1043 24.5 Iteration of The Design 1053 24.6 Generation of Potential Alternatives or System Synthesis 1070 24.7 Alternatives and Feasibility Studies 1082 24.8 Conclusion 1085 25 Functional Analysis 1091 Dennis M. Buede 25.1 Introduction 1091 25.2 Elements of Functional Analysis 1091 25.3 Functional Decomposition 1092 25.4 The Systems Engineering Requirements Statement and Functional Analysis 1096 25.5 Diagrams and Software for Functional Analysis 1109 25.6 Conclusion 1125 26 Methods for the Modeling and Analysis of Alternatives 1127 C. Els Van Daalen, Wil A. H. Thissen, Alexander Verbraeck, and Pieter W. G. Bots 26.1 Introduction 1127 26.2 Quantitative Models and Methods 1128 26.3 Physical System Models 1134 26.4 System Dynamics 1141 26.5 Discrete-Event Simulation Models 1145 26.6 Agent-Based Models 1150 26.7 Economic Models of Costs and Benefits 1155 26.8 Evaluation and Discussion 1161 27 Operations Research and Refinement of Courses of Action 1171 Keith W. Hipel, D. Marc Kilgour, Siamak Rajabi, and Ye Chen 27.1 Introduction 1171 27.2 Operations Research 1171 27.3 Operations Research and Systems Engineering 1176 27.4 Operations Research Methods 1178 27.5 Generating and Screening Actions 1189 27.6 Multiple-Criteria Decision Making 1192 27.7 Multiple-Participant Decision Making 1202 27.8 Heuristic Programming 1210 27.9 Conclusions 1214 28 Decision Analysis 1223 Craig W. Kirkwood 28.1 Introduction 1223 28.2 Structuring Objectives 1223 28.3 Developing Alternatives 1228 28.4 Value Analysis 1232 28.5 Decisions With Uncertainty 1238 28.6 Multiple Objectives and Uncertainty 1245 28.7 Decision Analysis Software 1246 28.8 Conclusion 1247 29 Project Planning: Planning for Action 1251 Ruth Buys 29.1 Introduction 1251 29.2 Network-Based Systems Planning and Project Management 1253 29.3 Pricing and Estimating 1256 29.4 Risk and Cost Control 1260 29.5 Maintenance and Support 1267 29.6 Software for Planning Support 1269 29.7 Presentation and Communication of Results of Systems Planning 1272 29.8 Project Planning Pitfalls 1275 29.9 Conclusion 1279 30 Complex Adaptive Systems in Systems Engineering and Management 1283 Sarah Sheard 30.1 Introduction 1283 30.2 Order: Newtonian and Mechanical Systems 1286 30.3 History and Principles of Chaos 1289 30.4 Between Order and Chaos 1291 30.5 Complexity and Complex Systems 1292 30.6 Complex Adaptive Systems 1294 30.7 Small Worlds, Scale-Free Networks, Power Laws, and Evolving Fitness Landscapes 1297 30.8 Principles of Complex Systems for Systems Engineering 1303 30.9 Principles for Management of Complex Adaptive Systems Engineering Efforts 1309 30.10 Conclusion 1315 31 Human Systems Integration 1319 Harold R. Booher, Robert J. Beaton, and Frances Greene 31.1 Introduction 1319 31.2 HSI Concept 1320 31.3 HSI Assessment Principles and Factors 1326 31.4 HSI Business Case 1332 31.5 HSI Process in Systems Engineering 1339 31.6 Conclusion 1355 32 Model-Based Systems Engineering 1361 David W. Oliver, James F. Andary, and Harold Frisch 32.1 Introduction 1361 32.2 A Selected History of The Modeling of Systems 1364 32.3 A Semantic Glossary and Model for Systems Engineering Concepts 1370 32.4 Product Data Management 1393 32.5 Ontologies 1396 32.6 Conclusion 1398 33 Using the Design Structure Matrix to Design Program Organizations 1401 Tyson R. Browning 33.1 Introduction 1401 33.2 A Framework for Organizational Integration 1403 33.3 Organizational Integration Analysis with the Design Structure Matrix 1405 33.4 A Systematic Approach to Designing Programs for organizational Integration 1413 33.5 Implementation barriers 1420 33.6 Conclusion 1420 34 Information Technology and Knowledge Management 1425 William B. Rouse and Andrew P. Sage 34.1 Introduction 1425 34.2 Trends 1428 34.3 Scenarios 1433 34.4 Eleven Challenges 1437 34.5 Ecological Approaches to the Challenges 1450 34.6 Conclusion 1457 References 1457 Index 1463