Smart Grids (eBook)

Foreword 5
Acknowledgments 7
Contents 9
Abbreviations 15
1 Vision and Strategy for the Electricity Networks of the Future 21
1.1 The Drivers of Smart Grids 21
1.2 The Core Elements of the European Smart Grid Vision 25
1.3 Ambitious Changes of the Energy Policy in Europe and the Consequences for Smart Grids 31
References 37
2 Smart Generation: Resources and Potentials 38
2.1 New Trends and Requirements for Electricity Generation 38
2.2 Volatile Renewable Energy Sources: Wind and Sun 41
2.2.1 Wind Power Plants 41
2.2.2 Utilization of Solar Power for Electricity Generation 48
2.3 Cogeneration of Heat and Power Applying Renewable Energy Sources 54
2.3.1 Bio Fuel Power Plants 55
2.3.2 Geothermal Power Plants 57
2.3.3 Fuel Cells 59
2.4 Electric Energy Storage Systems 62
2.4.1 Introduction and Categories of Electricity Storage 62
2.4.2 Long-Term Bulk Energy Storage Plants 64
2.4.2.1 Pumped-Storage Hydroelectric Power Plants 64
2.4.2.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage 65
2.4.3 Stationary Electric Batteries 67
2.4.4 “Power to Gas” by Electrolysis and Methanation 70
2.4.5 Electric Energy Management by Thermal Storage 72
2.5 Enhanced Flexibility Requirements for Controllable Power Plants 74
References 78
3 Modern Technologies and the Smart Grid Challenges in Transmission Networks 80
3.1 Substations: The Network Nodes 80
3.1.1 Schemes and Components of Transmission Substations 81
3.1.2 Innovative Air Insulated Switchgear Technology 85
3.1.3 Gas Insulated Switchgear 89
3.2 Control and Automation of Power Systems by Digital Technologies 91
3.2.1 The Hierarchy and the Data Processing of Power System Control and Automation 91
3.2.2 Protection and Control in Substations 94
3.2.2.1 Historical Development 94
3.2.2.2 Advanced IED Technology 97
3.2.2.3 Protection and Control Schemes in UHV, EHV and HV Substations 102
3.2.3 Control Center Technologies 110
3.3 Transmission Technologies 114
3.3.1 Overview 114
3.3.2 AC-Transmission 117
3.3.3 DC-Transmission 120
3.3.4 Flexible AC Transmission Using Active and Reactive Power Control 126
3.4 Present Challenges for Transmission Grids 130
3.4.1 The Impact of Fluctuating Wind and Solar Power Generation 130
3.4.2 The Dislocation of Generation and Load Centers 133
3.4.3 Power In-Feed by Power Electronics and Short Circuit Power 135
References 139
4 Design of Distribution Networks and the Impact of New Network Users 140
4.1 Categories of Distribution Networks 140
4.2 Primary and Secondary MV Distribution 141
4.3 Network Categories for MV and LV 147
4.4 Neutral Grounding Concepts 151
4.4.1 Resonant Grounding 153
4.4.2 Isolated Neutral 155
4.4.3 Solid and Low Impedance (Current Limiting) Neutral Grounding 156
4.4.4 Combined Methods 156
4.4.5 Summary Grounding Methods 157
4.4.6 Practical Experiences for Efficient Selection of the Neutral Grounding Method 158
4.4.6.1 Industrial 6 kV Network 158
4.4.6.2 Industrial 20 kV System 160
4.5 Protection for Distribution Networks 162
4.5.1 MV Networks 162
4.5.2 The Feeding Substations of MV Networks 169
4.5.3 LV Networks 170
4.6 Distribution Network Operation 171
4.6.1 Ensuring Power Quality 171
4.6.2 Process Management 176
4.7 New Trends in Distribution Systems 180
4.7.1 Distributed Generation and New Types of Load 180
4.7.2 Impact on Power Quality 181
References 183
5 Smart Operation and Observability at the Transmission Level 185
5.1 The Root Causes of Large Blackouts and the Lessons Learned 186
5.1.1 Overview and the Voltage Collapse Phenomena 186
5.1.2 Northeast USA/Canada Blackout 2003 188
5.1.3 Large Supply Interruption in London 2003 191
5.1.4 Blackout in Sweden and Denmark 2003 192
5.1.5 The Italian Blackout 2003 193
5.1.6 The Blackout of Athens 2004 194
5.1.7 The Large Disturbance in the Southern Moscow 2005 196
5.1.8 The Large System Disturbance in Germany and Continental Europe 2006 197
5.2 Control Areas and System Services 199
5.2.1 Power System Management 200
5.2.2 Frequency Control 202
5.2.3 Voltage Control 205
5.2.4 Restoration of Supply 206
5.2.5 Generation Scheduling: Merit Order Principle 206
5.2.6 System Service Provision by Distributed Energy Resources 207
5.3 Power System Observation and Intelligent Congestion Management 212
5.3.1 Need for More Observation in the Power System 212
5.3.2 Prediction Methods for a Secure Power System Operation 214
5.3.2.1 Basic Prediction Principles of Power Injections from Volatile RES 214
5.3.2.2 Day-Ahead Congestion Forecast (DACF) in the Interconnected Transmission System 218
5.3.2.3 The Need for Network Level Overlapping Congestion Forecasts 218
5.3.2.4 The Cellular Approach for Predictions, Balancing and Schedule Management 220
5.3.3 Modern Protection Concepts 223
5.3.3.1 Protection Security Assessment 223
5.3.3.2 Adaptive Protection 225
5.3.3.3 System Protection 228
5.3.4 Wide Area Monitoring by Phasor Measurement 230
5.3.5 Steady State and Dynamic Security Assessment 235
5.3.6 Weather Condition Monitoring and Flexible Line Loading 240
5.4 Conclusions 241
References 241
6 The Three Pillars of Smart Distribution 243
6.1 The Relationship Between Smart Grids and Smart Markets in Distribution Systems 243
6.2 Pillar 1: Automation and Remote Control of Local Distribution Networks 247
6.2.1 Voltage Control 247
6.2.1.1 Traditional Voltage Quality Control and the Adaptation to the Smart Grid Conditions 247
6.2.1.2 Involvement of the Network Users into Voltage Control 251
6.2.2 Opportunities for Power Flow Control 252
6.2.3 Automated and Remote Controlled Recovery of Supply After Fault Trips 254
6.2.4 Enhanced MV Protection Concepts 256
6.2.4.1 The Changing Protection Conditions [1] 256
6.2.4.2 Adapted Protection Schemes in Distribution Networks with Connected DERs [6] 260
6.2.4.3 Phasor Measurement in Distribution Networks 263
6.2.5 The Economy of the Smart Grid Enhancement in Distribution 265
6.3 Pillar 2: Flexibility by Virtual Power Plants: Smart Aggregation 268
6.3.1 Basics of Virtual Power Plants 268
6.3.2 Demand Side Management: The Role of Storage and Controllable Loads 270
6.3.3 Business Models of Virtual Power Plants on Prospective Markets 274
6.4 Pillar 3: Smart Metering and Market Integration of the Consumers 279
6.4.1 Basics of the Digital Metering Technology 279
6.4.2 Dynamic Tariffs 281
6.4.3 The Impact on Consumer Behavior: Demand Side Response 284
6.4.4 Electric Vehicle Management 289
6.5 Communication Needs for Smart Distribution 294
References 296
7 Design of the Smart Energy Market 297
7.1 Prospective Markets for Power Supply: A Vision and a Case Study 302
7.2 Smart Services for Network Operations and Electricity Markets 309
7.2.1 The Overview of the Smart Services 309
7.2.2 Metering Services 310
7.2.3 Data Communication and Information Management 312
References 313
8 Advanced Information and Communication Technology: The Backbone of Smart Grids 314
8.1 The Importance of Uniform ICT Standards for Smart Grids 314
8.1.1 Functions of ICT Standards 314
8.1.2 Communication Standards 315
8.1.3 Standards for Data Management 318
8.1.4 Information Security 321
8.2 The History of Communication Development for Supervision and Control in Power Systems 322
8.2.1 The Design Development of Remote Substation Control 322
8.2.2 Introduction of Digital Communication Protocols 326
8.3 Seamless Communication by Applying the Standard Series IEC 61850 334
8.3.1 The Reference Model and the Structure of IEC 61850 334
8.3.2 The Data Model 337
8.3.3 Three Protocols on One Bus: The Communication Service Structure 343
8.3.4 Protocol Services 344
8.3.5 Independent Engineering 349
8.3.6 Conformance and Acceptance Testing 352
8.3.7 New Standard Parts for Smart Grid Extensions 356
8.4 Data Management Based on the Common Information Model CIM IEC 61968/70 359
8.5 Data and Communications Security IEC/TS 62351 364
8.6 Global Activities for Uniform Smart Grid Standards 366
8.6.1 The Reference Model IEC/TR 62357 366
8.6.2 The European Mandate M/490 368
8.6.3 Global Activity Analysis Within the E-Energy/Smart Grid Standardization Roadmap 373
Appendix 380
References 382
9 Smart Grids Worldwide 384
9.1 Smart Grids for the World’s Largest Power Systems 384
9.1.1 Ambitious Power System Development Strategy in China 384
9.1.2 Development Targets for Interconnections in the USA 388
9.1.3 The Power System Enhancement in Russia and its Neighbouring Countries 394
9.2 Overview of Smart Grid Projects in Europe 400
9.2.1 Projects of the 5th–8th Framework Programmes of the European Union 400
9.2.2 The European Inventory of National Smart Grid Projects 403
9.3 Selected Smart Grid Application Experiences 409
9.3.1 Web2Energy: The Three Pillars of Smart Distribution in Practice 409
9.3.2 RegModHarz: Region Supplied by a Virtual Power Plant 413
9.3.3 DSR Projects in the USA 417
9.3.4 The South Korean Smart Grid Test-Bed on Jeju Island 420
References 423