Veterinary Neuropathology

Marc Vandevelde Dr.med.vet., DECVN is a professor of neurology in the Division of Neurological Sciences, Vetsuisse Faculty at the University of Bern, Switzerland.

Robert J. Higgins BVSc, MS, PhD, DACVP is a professor of pathology in the Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, at the University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA.

Anna Oevermann Dr. med.vet., DECVP is an associate professor of neuropathology in the Division of Neurological Sciences , Vetsuisse Faculty at the University of Bern, Switzerland.

Preface

Foreword

1 General neuropathology

1.1 Principles of neuroanatomy for diagnostic neuropathologists

1.1.1 Anatomical orientation by using the ventricular system

1.1.2 Major anatomical regions of interest

1.1.3 Histological neuroanatomy

1.2 Neuropathological techniques
1.2.1 Necropsy techniques
1.2.2 Brain sectioning, macroscopic inspection and sampling for histology

1.3 Basic tissue reaction patterns

1.3.1 Reactions of neurons to injury

1.3.2 Oligodendrocytes

1.3.3 Astrocytes

1.3.4 Microglia/macrophages
1.3.5 CSF spaces

1.3.6 Blood vessels

1.3.7 Disturbance of water balance: edema

1.3.8 Artifacts, postmortem degeneration and pseudolesions

1.4 Recognizing major lesion patterns
1.4.1 The major lesion patterns
1.4.2 Lesion distribution pattern

1.4.3 Classification of neurological diseases

1.4.4 General strategy
1.5 Neuropathology in the clinics: magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

1.5.1 Basic MRI physics

1.5.2 Principles of interpretation

Further reading

Neuropathology general
Neurology/functional neuroanatomy

Neuroanatomy

Techniques for PNS and muscle

Basic tissue reaction patterns

Edema

Artifacts, pseudolesions, old age

Magnetic resonance imaging

2 Vascular disorders

2.1 Pathophysiology of ischemia
2.2 General strategy for diagnosing vascular lesions

2.3 Common vascular lesions
2.3.1 Vascular lesions of the brain

2.3.2 Vascular lesions of the spinal cord

2.3.3 Ischemia in the periperal nervous system and muscles

Further reading

Cerebral infarcts

Hemorrhage

Hypertensive encehalopathy

Fibrocartilagenous emboli

Aortic thrombosis

3 Inflammatory diseases

3.1 Pathophysiology of inflammation

3.1.1 Entry and effect of infectious agents in the nervous system

3.1.2 Immune reaction of the host against the infectious agent in the CNS

3.1.3 Morphological aspects of the immune response
3.2 General strategy for diagnosis of inflammatory lesions

3.2.1 Recognizing major inflammatory reaction patterns

3.2.2 Determining the distribution pattern of the lesions

3.2.3 Specific features

3.3 Common CNS infections

3.3.1 Neurotropic viral infections

3.3.2 Viral granulomatous inflammation

3.3.3 Viral vasculitis

3.3.4 Viral leukoencephalitis

3.3.5 Bacterial infections

3.3.6 Mycotic and algal infections

3.3.7 Protozoal infections

3.3.8 Helmintic infections

3.4 Non-infectious and immune-mediated inflammatory lesions

3.4.1 Definition

3.4.2 Neurological diseases assumed to be immune-mediated

Further reading

General

Neurotropic viral infections

Viral granulomatous infections
Viral vasculitis

Demyelinating viral infections

Bacterial infections

Fungal infections

Protozoal infections

Helmintic infections
Non-infectious and Immune-mediated inflammatory disorders

4 Trauma

4.1 Pathophysiology of CNS trauma
4.1.1 Pathogenesis of brain trauma

4.1.2 Pathogenesis of spinal cord trauma

4.2 General strategy for diagnosis of traumatic CNS lesions

4.3 Traumatic nervous system diseases
4.3.1 Trauma of the brain
4.3.2 Traumatic spinal cord lesions

4.3.3 Trauma in the peripheral nervous system

Further reading

Pathophysiology of CNS trauma

Brain trauma

Intervertebral disc disease

Spinal malformations

Wobbler syndrome

Other causes of cord compression
Cauda equina syndrome

5 Congenital malformations (anomalies)
5.1 Pathophysiology

5.1.1 Ontogeny of the CNS

5.1.2 Etiology

5.2 General strategy for diagnosing anomalies of the CNS

5.3 Common malformations

5.3.1 Neural tube closure defects

5.3.2 Defects of forebrain induction

5.3.3 Neuronal migration disorders and sulcation defects

5.3.4 Disorders of proliferation or size

5.3.5 Encephaloclastic defects

5.3.6 Malformations in the caudal fossa and spinal cord

5.3.7 Congenital hydrocephalus and other anomalies of CSF pathways

Further reading

Neural tube closure defects

Defects of forebrain induction

Neuronal migration disorders and sulcation defects

Encephaloclastic defects

Cerebellar hypoplasia

Dandy Walker syndrome

Chiari malformation, Syringomyelia

Hydrocephalus

Arachnoidal and ependymal cysts

6 Metabolic-toxic diseases

6.1 General strategy for diagnosis of metabolic-toxic lesions

6.1.1 The major patterns

6.1.2 Further differential diagnosis
6.2 Encephalomalacias/myelomalacias

6.2.1 Polioencephalomalacia (PE) or cerebrocortical necrosis (CCN)

6.2.2 Polioencephalomalacia of subcortical structures and brainstem

6.2.3 Poliomyelomalacia

6.2.4 Leukoencephalomalacias

6.2.5 Encephalomalacias involving both gray and white matter

6.3 Acquired metabolic-toxic selective lesions
6.3.1 Neuronal degeneration

6.3.2 Axonal degeneration

6.3.3 Myelin degeneration

6.4 Spongy degeneration
6.5 Metabolic-toxic lesions of the peripheral
nervous system (PNS) and skeletal muscle

6.5.1 Metabolic-toxic neuropathies

6.5.2 Metabolic-toxic myopathies

Further reading

General

Polioencephalomalacia large animals

Polioencephalomalacia in small animals
Hippocampal necrosis and sclerosis

Subcortical and brainstem encephalomalacias
Selenium poisoning

Equine leukomalacia

Enterotoxemia

CO poisoning

Metabolic toxic neuronal degenerations

Grass sickness

Acquired lysosomal storage diseases
Metabolic-toxic axonal degenerations
Irradiated feed-induced myelinopathy in cats

Toxic spongy degenerations

Hepatic encephalopathy

Toxic peripheral neuropathies

Metabolic peripheral neuropathies

Matabolic-toxic myopathies

7 Neoplasia 129

7.1 General strategy for diagnosis of neoplastic lesions

7.1.1 Clinical and diagnostic imaging information

7.1.2 Interpretation of gross findings

7.1.3 Diagnosis

7.1.4 Grading

7.2 Tumors of neuroepithelial origin
7.2.1 Astrocytomas

7.2.2 Oligodendroglioma (grade II-III)

7.2.3 Mixed gliomas (oligoastrocytomas)
7.2.4 Ependymoma (grade I-III)

7.2.5 Choroid plexus tumors (papillomas and carcinomas)
7.2.6 Neuronal and mixed neuronal-glial tumors

7.2.7 Embryonal tumors

7.3 Tumors of cranial and spinal nerves

7.3.1 Benign PNST

7.3.2 Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNST)

7.4 Tumors of the meninges

7.4.1 Meningioma

7.4.2 Granular cell tumor

7.4.3 Mesenchymal tumors

7.5 Lymphomas and hematopoietic tumors

7.5.1 Primary T and B cell lymphomas

7.5.2 Intravascular lymphoma

7.5.3 Metastatic lymphoma

7.5.4 Primary CNS histiocytic sarcoma
7.6 Germ cell tumors
7.6.1 Germinoma

7.6.2 Teratoma

7.7 Embryonal tumors of nonneuroepithelial origin

7.7.1 Thoracolumbar spinal cord tumor (ectopic nephroblastoma)

7.8 Secondary or metastatic tumors

Further reading

General

Glial tumors

Choroid plexus tumors

Neuronal tumors

Embryonal tumors
PNS tumors

Meningiomas

Granular cell tumor

Mesenchymal tumors

Lymphomas and hemapoetic tumors

Germ cell tumors

Nephroblastoma

Metastatic tumors

8 Degenerative diseases

8.1 General strategy for differential diagnosis of degenerative lesions

8.1.1 Recognizing the major patterns

8.1.2 Further analysis
8.1.3 Diagnosis

8.2 Degenerations of neurons
8.2.1 General aspects

8.2.2 Motor neuron diseases

8.2.3 Cerebellar degenerations

8.2.4 Other neuronal degenerations

8.3 Axonal degenerations

8.3.1 Wallerian-like degenerative axonopathies
8.3.2 Axonopathies with prominent axonal swelling

8.4 Myelin disorders

8.4.1 Leukodystrophies

8.4.2 Myelin dysgenesis

8.5 Storage diseases

8.5.1 Lysosomal storage diseases

8.5.2 Neuronal ceroid lipofucsinoses (NCL)

8.5.3 Lafora's disease

8.5.4 Acquired storage diseases
8.6 Spongiform encephalopathies

8.6.1 Transmissible degenerative diseases

8.6.2 Neuropathology of TSE

8.6.3 TSEs in domestic animals

8.7 Spongy degenerations

8.7.1 Definition and general morphological features
8.7.2 Spongy degeneration in branchedchain organic acidurias

8.7.3 Spongy degenerations of other causes

8.8 Selective symmetrical encephalomalacias (SSE)
8.8.1 General morphological features

8.8.2 Mitochondrial encephalopathies in people and similar lesions in animals

8.9 Degenerative diseases of the peripheral nervous system and muscle

8.9.1 Degenerative polyneuropathies

8.9.2 Degenerative myopathies

Further reading

Motor neuron diseases

Cerebellar degenerations
Other neuronal degenerations
Alzheimer disease

Wallerian-like axonal degenerations

Degenerative myelopathy in old dogs

Wallerian-like degenerations in large animals
Neuroaxonal dystrophy

Leukodystrophies

Dysmyelination

Lysosomal storage diseases

Spongiform encephalopathies

Spongy degenerations

Selective symmetrical encephalomalacias

Degenerative diseases of the PNS and muscles

Index

"Add color gross, histological and MRI images and you have a key reference any veterinary collection must have." (Midwest Book Reviews, 1 May 2013)

"Thus, 'Veterinary Neuropathology' by Vandevelde, Higgins and Oevermann is an ideal aid for the visual approach to structural lesions of the nervous system. If you are a neurophilic veterinarian, don't leave this book out of your bookshelf unless it has been translocated already to your desk and is open in front of your eyes." (Veterinary Record, 6 April 2013)