Measurement and Instrumentation Principles (eBook)

Cover 1
Contents 6
Preface 18
Acknowledgements 21
Part 1: Principles of Measurement 22
Chapter 1. Introduction to measurement 24
1.1 Measurement units 24
1.2 Measurement system applications 27
1.3 Elements of a measurement system 29
1.4 Choosing appropriate measuring instruments 30
Chapter 2. Instrument types and performance characteristics 33
2.1 Review of instrument types 33
2.2 Static characteristics of instruments 37
2.3 Dynamic characteristics of instruments 44
2.4 Necessity for calibration 50
2.5 Self-test questions 51
Chapter 3. Errors during the measurement process 53
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Sources of systematic error 54
3.3 Reduction of systematic errors 60
3.4 Quantification of systematic errors 63
3.5 Random errors 63
3.6 Aggregation of measurement system errors 77
3.7 Self-test questions 81
References and further reading 84
Chapter 4. Calibration of measuring sensors and instruments 85
4.1 Principles of calibration 85
4.2 Control of calibration environment 87
4.3 Calibration chain and traceability 88
4.4 Calibration records 91
References and further reading 93
Chapter 5. Measurement noise and signal processing 94
5.1 Sources of measurement noise 94
5.2 Techniques for reducing measurement noise 97
5.3 Introduction to signal processing 99
5.4 Analogue signal filtering 99
5.5 Other analogue signal processing operations 107
5.6 Digital signal processing 116
References and further reading 122
Chapter 6. Electrical indicating and test instruments 123
6.1 Digital meters 123
6.2 Analogue meters 125
6.3 Cathode ray oscilloscope 135
6.4 Digital storage oscilloscopes 139
References and further reading 139
Chapter 7. Variable conversion elements 140
7.1 Bridge circuits 140
7.2 Resistance measurement 155
7.3 Inductance measurement 159
7.4 Capacitance measurement 159
7.5 Current measurement 161
7.6 Frequency measurement 162
7.7 Phase measurement 166
7.8 Self-test questions 168
References and further reading 171
Chapter 8. Signal Transmission 172
8.1 Electrical transmission 172
8.2 Pneumatic transmission 175
8.3 Fibre-optic transmission 176
8.4 Optical wireless telemetry 181
8.5 Radio telemetry (radio wireless transmission) 182
8.6 Digital transmission protocols 184
References and further reading 185
Chapter 9. Digital computation and intelligent devices 186
9.1 Principles of digital computation 186
9.2 Intelligent devices 198
9.3 Self-test questions 206
References and further reading 207
Chapter 10. Instrumentation/computer networks 208
10.1 Introduction 208
10.2 Serial communication lines 209
10.3 Parallel data bus 211
10.4 Local area networks (LANs) 213
10.5 Gateways 216
10.6 HART 216
10.7 Digital fieldbuses 217
10.8 Communication protocols for very large systems 219
10.9 Future development of networks 220
References and further reading 220
Chapter 11. Display, recording and presentation of measurement data 221
11.1 Display of measurement signals 221
11.2 Recording of measurement data 223
11.3 Presentation of data 233
11.4 Self-test questions 243
References and further reading 244
Chapter 12. Measurement reliability and safety systems 245
12.1 Reliability 245
12.2 Safety systems 257
12.3 Self-test questions 262
References and further reading 263
Part 2: Measurement Sensors and Instruments 266
Chapter 13. Sensor technologies 268
13.1 Capacitive and resistive sensors 268
13.2 Magnetic sensors 268
13.3 Hall-effect sensors 270
13.4 Piezoelectric transducers 271
13.5 Strain gauges 272
13.6 Piezoresistive sensors 273
13.7 Optical sensors (air path) 273
13.8 Optical sensors (fibre-optic) 274
13.9 Ultrasonic transducers 280
13.10 Nuclear sensors 288
13.11 Microsensors 289
References and further reading 291
Chapter 14. Temperature measurement 292
14.1 Principles of temperature measurement 292
14.2 Thermoelectric effect sensors (thermocouples) 293
14.3 Varying resistance devices 304
14.4 Semiconductor devices 307
14.5 Radiation thermometers 308
14.6 Thermography (thermal imaging) 314
14.7 Thermal expansion methods 315
14.8 Quartz thermometers 318
14.9 Fibre-optic temperature sensors 318
14.10 Acoustic thermometers 319
14.11 Colour indicators 320
14.12 Change of state of materials 320
14.13 Intelligent temperature-measuring instruments 321
14.14 Choice between temperature transducers 321
14.15 Self-test questions 323
References and further reading 324
Chapter 15. Pressure measurement 325
15.1 Diaphragms 326
15.2 Capacitive pressure sensor 327
15.3 Fibre-optic pressure sensors 327
15.4 Bellows 328
15.5 Bourdon tube 329
15.6 Manometers 331
15.7 Resonant-wire devices 332
15.8 Dead-weight gauge 333
15.9 Special measurement devices for low pressures 333
15.10 High-pressure measurement (greater than 7000 bar) 336
15.11 Intelligent pressure transducers 337
15.12 Selection of pressure sensors 337
Chapter 16. Flow measurement 340
16.1 Mass flow rate 340
16.2 Volume flow rate 342
16.3 Intelligent flowmeters 359
16.4 Choice between flowmeters for particular applications 359
References and further reading 360
Chapter 17. Level measurement 361
17.1 Dipsticks 361
17.2 Float systems 361
17.3 Pressure-measuring devices (hydrostatic systems) 362
17.4 Capacitive devices 364
17.5 Ultrasonic level gauge 365
17.6 Radar (microwave) methods 367
17.7 Radiation methods 367
17.8 Other techniques 369
17.9 Intelligent level-measuring instruments 372
17.10 Choice between different level sensors 372
References and further reading 372
Chapter 18. Mass, force and torque measurement 373
18.1 Mass (weight) measurement 373
18.2 Force measurement 380
18.3 Torque measurement 382
Chapter 19. Translational motion transducers 386
19.1 Displacement 386
19.2 Velocity 403
19.3 Acceleration 404
19.4 Vibration 407
19.5 Shock 409
Chapter 20. Rotational motion transducers 411
20.1 Rotational displacement 411
20.2 Rotational velocity 428
20.3 Measurement of rotational acceleration 438
References and further reading 439
Chapter 21. Summary of other measurements 440
21.1 Dimension measurement 440
21.2 Angle measurement 447
21.3 Flatness measurement 449
21.4 Volume measurement 449
21.5 Viscosity measurement 450
21.6 Moisture measurement 453
21.7 Sound measurement 457
21.8 pH measurement 458
21.9 Gas sensing and analysis 460
References and further reading 465
Appendix 1. Imperial–metric–SI conversion tables 466
Appendix 2. Thévenin’s theorem 473
Appendix 3. Thermocouple tables 479
Appendix 4. Solutions to self-test questions 485
Index 490