Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries (eBook)

Cover 1
Preface 6
List of Contributors 8
Contents 10
Abbreviations, Symbols and Units Used Repeatedly in Text 20
1 The Valve-regulated Battery 28
Lead--Acid Batteries --- A Key Technology for Energy Sustainability 28
The Lead--Acid Battery 29
The Valve-regulated Battery 34
Heat Management in Lead--Acid Batteries 37
Heat generation 37
Heat dissipation 38
The Challenges Ahead 39
References 41
2 Lead Alloys for Valve-regulated Lead--acid Batteries 42
Antimony-free Grid Alloys 42
Pure-lead Positive Grids 42
Lead--Calcium Alloys 43
Tin Additions to Pure Lead and Lead--Calcium Alloys 47
Lead--Calcium--Tin Alloys 48
Grain structure 48
Mechanical properties of cast lead& ndash
Aluminium addition 51
Tin effects on conductivity of battery grids 52
Lead--Antimony--Cadmium Alloys 59
References 59
3 Formation of Lead--acid Batteries and Structure of Positive and Negative Active Masses 64
Introduction 64
Manufacture of lead--acid battery plates 64
Survey of soaking and formation phenomena 67
Soaking of Plates 69
Filling VRLA cells with H2SO4 solution 69
Chemical zonal processes during soaking 71
Soaking of 3BS-cured pastes 73
Soaking of 4BS-cured pastes 79
Formation of Positive Plates 81
Thermodynamics of formation processes 81
Reactions during formation of PAM from 3BS-cured pastes 82
Zonal processes during formation of PAM from 3BS-cured pastes 86
beta-PbO2:alpha-PbO2 ratio and its effect on capacity of positive plates 89
Structure of PAM 91
Gel--crystal forms of PbO2 particles 93
Mechanism of formation of PbO2 particles 97
Formation of pore system in PAM and its functions 98
Influence of basic lead sulfates on cycle-life of positive plates 103
Formation of plates prepared with 4BS-cured pastes 106
Influence of current-collector surface on formation of PbSO4 crystals at grid--PAM interface 110
Formation of Negative Plates 112
Thermodynamics of formation processes 112
Reactions during formation of negative plate 113
Zonal processes 115
Structure of negative active mass 118
Evolution of pore structure of plate during formation 121
Effect of expanders on NAM 123
Effect of expander structure on battery performance 126
Technology of Formation 127
Technological parameters of formation process 127
Stages of formation of positive and negative plates 127
General current (voltage) algorithm for formation of positive plates 130
Conclusions 133
References 134
4 Positive-Plate Additives to Enhance Formation and Battery Performance 136
Introduction 136
Modelling the Effects of Additives 136
Non-conductive Additives 138
Hollow glass microspheres 138
Carboxymethyl cellulose 139
Silica gel 140
Designer additives 140
Conductive Additives 141
Barium plumbate 142
Titanium oxide 145
Conductive polymers 146
SnO2 147
Iron boride 147
Lead-coated glass wire 147
Carbon 148
Lead dioxide 150
Chemically Active Additives 151
Sulfate salts 151
Phosphates 154
Bismuth 157
Polyvinylsulfonic acid and its salts 158
Conclusions 158
References 159
5 Negative Plates in Valve-regulated Lead--acid Batteries 162
Introduction 162
Basic Electrochemical Characteristics 163
Negative-plate Additives 169
Carbon 171
Barium sulfate 173
Organic additives 174
Charging Influences 181
Use of Internal Catalysts 184
Summary 186
References 187
6 The Function of the Separator in the Valve-regulated Lead--acid Battery 190
Introduction 190
Characteristics of Absorptive Glass Mat (AGM) 191
Wetting behaviour of AGM materials 191
Physical properties of AGM materials 198
Gel Batteries 200
Separator Properties and Function 201
Compression characteristics 201
Oxygen cycle and recombination efficiency 203
Stratification and drainage 205
Future Developments 206
References 207
7 Separator Materials for Valve-regulated Lead--acid Batteries 210
Introduction 210
State-of-the-art Separators 210
Absorptive glass mat (AGM) separators 210
Separators for gel batteries 212
Development Trends for VRLA Battery Separators 213
Separator Developments 214
Modified AGM 214
Alternative separators 222
Conclusions 230
References 230
8 Battery Management 234
Introduction 234
Tasks of Battery Management Systems 235
Designs of Battery Management System 236
Battery Data Acquisition 237
Determination of Battery State 239
Battery state-of-charge 240
Battery state-of-health 252
Electrical Management of Batteries 256
Control of charge 256
Control of discharge 256
Multiple battery systems 258
Thermal Management of Batteries 260
Air systems 260
Liquid systems 261
Electrical systems 262
Passive cooling systems and isolation 263
Phase-change materials 264
Other systems 264
Storage of Historical Battery Data 264
Safety Management of Batteries 265
System Communications 265
Conclusions 266
References 266
9 Charging Techniques for VRLA Batteries 268
Introduction 268
Basic charging & mdash
Traditional charging methods 272
Charging of VRLA Products 281
The oxygen cycle and saturation effects 281
Gas transport and oxygen cycle 284
Overcharge processes 286
Existing Charging Methods Applied to VRLA Products 289
Float charging 289
Cyclic charging 294
Fast charging 298
Charge-termination strategies 299
Failure modes attributable to charging 301
Evolving and Optimized Charging Methods 303
Optimized approaches to float charging 303
Optimized approaches to cyclic charging 306
Partial-state-of-charge cycling & mdash
Summary and Conclusions 315
References 318
10 Battery Energy-Storage Systems for Power-Supply Networks 322
Introduction 322
A Historical Perspective 322
Energy-Storage Technologies 324
Lead& ndash
Supercapacitors 328
Flywheels 329
Superconducting magnetic energy storage 329
Energy-storage Applications 329
Rapid reserve (generation) 331
Area control and frequency responsive reserve (generation) 331
Commodity storage (generation) 332
Transmission system stability (T& amp
Transmission voltage regulation (T& amp
Transmission facility deferral (T& amp
Distribution facility deferral (T& amp
Renewable energy management (customer service) 333
Customer energy management (customer service) 333
Power quality and reliability (customer service) 333
Battery Energy-storage Systems 333
Elektrizit& auml
BEWAG AG, Berlin, Germany 335
Hagen Batterie AG, Soest, Germany 336
Crescent Electric Membership Corporation, Statesville, NC, USA 336
Southern California Edison, Chino, CA, USA 337
Johnson Controls, Inc., Milwaukee, WI, USA 338
Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority 339
GNB Technologies, Vernon, CA, USA 340
Metlakatla, AK, USA 341
Herne and Bochold, Germany 342
PQ2000 343
Power Conversion 344
Basic concepts 345
Switch considerations 348
Performance issues 348
Cost Considerations 349
Concluding Remarks 350
References 352
11 Valve-regulated Lead---acid Batteries in Automotive Applications --- A Vehicle Manufacturer’s Perspective 354
Introduction 354
Battery selection process 355
Sub-system description 360
Initial design phase 362
Failure modes and effects analysis 362
Design validation plan 364
Future electric loads 364
Environmental 369
Cost 370
Reliability 371
Safety 373
Maintenance-free 373
Weight savings 374
VRLA in Automotive Applications 374
VRLA features of interest to the automotive industry 375
Continuum of electric drive 378
Automotive Applications 380
12-V automotive 380
42-V automotive 390
Soft hybrids 396
Parallel& ndash
Electric vehicles 412
Conclusions 423
References 423
12 Valve-regulated Lead--acid Batteries in Automotive Applications --- A Battery Manufacturer’s Perspective 424
Introduction 424
History of Automotive Batteries and Vehicle Electrical Systems 428
The beginning 428
Development of vehicle electrical power systems and automotive batteries in 20th century 428
Expected changes in vehicle electrical systems in next decade and corresponding demands on automotive batteries 434
Design, Components, Manufacturing of Automotive Batteries 436
Components 436
Special designs& sol
Plate arrangement & mdash
AGM and gel technology in vehicles 440
VRLA automotive 12-V batteries for standard vehicle electrical systems 441
36-V VRLA automotive batteries for 42-V PowerNets 442
The VRLA Battery in Automotive Applications and its Interaction with the Vehicle 444
VRLA batteries in present vehicle electric systems 444
VRLA batteries in vehicles with new components and new operating strategies 447
State-detection and management of VRLA batteries 453
Performance Data 454
Outlook 454
References 457
13 Valve-regulated Lead--acid Batteries for Telecommunications and UPS Applications 462
Introduction 462
Features of VRLA Technology 463
Positive-grid corrosion 463
Improvement of service-life 467
Gel Batteries 473
AGM Batteries 478
Large Batteries for Stationary Applications 482
Future Trends in Stand-by Batteries 486
Continuous plate-processing 486
Spiral technology 488
Advanced separators 489
Conclusions 489
References 490
14 Remote-area Power-supply (RAPS) Systems and the Valve-regulated Lead--acid Battery 494
The Need for Remote-area Power-supply Systems 494
RAPS System Components 494
Battery bank 495
Diesel generator 496
Photovoltaic array 496
Wind generator 497
Hydro-generator 497
Inverter 498
Control system 499
RAPS System Design 499
Direct-current RAPS systems 500
Alternating-current RAPS systems 501
VRLA Batteries for RAPS Systems 503
Advantages 503
Disadvantages 504
Failure modes 505
Preferred design features 509
Recent developments 511
Advanced operating strategies 511
References 516
15 Recovery and Recycling of Lead--acid Batteries 518
Introduction 518
Battery Collection and Processing 519
Battery collection 519
Battery processing 520
Recovery and Refining 523
Pyrometallurgical methods 523
Hydrometallurgical methods 530
Refining and alloying of lead 530
Challenges Facing the Secondary Lead Industry 535
Processing and recovery 535
Refining 536
Silver 536
Antimony 537
Catalyst elements 537
Other elements 538
References 538
16 Environmental Aspects of Recycling Valve-regulated Lead--acid Batteries 540
Introduction 540
Justification for Recycling 541
Recycling Rates 542
Collection of Used VRLA Batteries 542
Transport of Used VRLA Batteries 544
Recycling Process 546
Recycling Options 549
Monitoring and Controlling Emissions 553
Engineering Control in the Workplace 554
Process Emission Controls 555
Emission Testing and Analysis 556
Biological Monitoring 559
Respiratory Protection 561
Employees& rsquo
Location 564
Segregation 565
Containment 565
Effluent Control 566
International Conventions and Protocols 570
Basel Convention 570
Appendix 1 571
References 574
17 The Next Great Challenge for Valve-regulated Lead--acid Batteries: High-rate Partial-state-of-charge Duty in New-generation Roa 576
Future Automobile Electrical Systems 576
The Challenge of High-rate Partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC) Duty 577
Mechanism of Lead Sulfate Accumulation During HRPSoC Duty 581
Controlling Secondary Reactions During High-rate Charge 586
Trace element control 586
Separator design 586
Carbon inventory 586
Grid Design for HRPSoC Duty 587
The Role of Plate Thickness 589
Concluding Remarks 591
References 592
Subject Index 594