Ludwig's Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants - A. Kayode Coker

Ludwig's Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants (eBook)

A. Kayode Coker (Autor)

eBook Download: PDF | EPUB

2014 | 4. Auflage
1296 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-08-094242-1 (ISBN)

The fourth edition of Ludwig's Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants, Volume Three is a core reference for chemical, plant, and process engineers and provides an unrivalled reference on methods, process fundamentals, and supporting design data. New to this edition are expanded chapters on heat transfer plus additional chapters focused on the design of shell and tube heat exchangers, double pipe heat exchangers and air coolers. Heat tracer requirements for pipelines and heat loss from insulated pipelines are covered in this new edition, along with batch heating and cooling of process fluids, process integration, and industrial reactors. The book also looks at the troubleshooting of process equipment and corrosion and metallurgy.

Assists engineers in rapidly analyzing problems and finding effective design methods and mechanical specifications
Definitive guide to the selection and design of various equipment types, including heat exchanger sizing and compressor sizing, with established design codes
Batch heating and cooling of process fluids supported by Excel programs

A. Kayode Coker, Ph.D., is an engineering Coordinator at Saudi Aramco Shell Refinery Company, in Jubail, Saudi Arabia and is a consultant for AKC Technology in the UK. Prior to this he was Chairman of the Chemical and Process Engineering Department at Jubail Industrial College. He has also been a chartered scientist and a chartered chemical engineer for over 30 years. Coker is a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers. UK, (C.Eng, CSci, FIChemE) and a senior member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE). He holds a B.Sc. honors degree in Chemical Engineering, a Master of Science degree in Process Analysis and Development, and a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, all from Aston University, Birmingham, UK. He also has a Teachers' Certificate in Education from the University of London, UK. He has directed and conducted short courses in both the UK and for SABIC industries in Saudi Arabia. His articles have been published in several international journals, he is an author of four books in chemical engineering and a contributor to the Encyclopaedia of Chemical Processing and Design, Vol. 61. Coker was named as one of the International Biographical Centre's Leading Engineers of the World 2008.

The fourth edition of Ludwig's Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants, Volume Three is a core reference for chemical, plant, and process engineers and provides an unrivalled reference on methods, process fundamentals, and supporting design data.New to this edition are expanded chapters on heat transfer plus additional chapters focused on the design of shell and tube heat exchangers, double pipe heat exchangers and air coolers. Heat tracer requirements for pipelines and heat loss from insulated pipelines are covered in this new edition, along with batch heating and cooling of process fluids, process integration, and industrial reactors. The book also looks at the troubleshooting of process equipment and corrosion and metallurgy. Assists engineers in rapidly analyzing problems and finding effective design methods and mechanical specifications Definitive guide to the selection and design of various equipment types, including heat exchanger sizing and compressor sizing, with established design codes Batch heating and cooling of process fluids supported by Excel programs

Front
1
Ludwig’s Applied Process

4
Copyright 5
Dedication 6
Contents 8
Foreword 12
Preface to the Fourth Edition 14
Biography 16
Acknowledgments 18
Chapter 15 -
20
Types of Heat Transfer Equipment Terminology 21
Details of Exchange Equipment 25
Tube Vibration 85
Nozzle Connections to Shell and Heads 93
Types of Heat Exchange Operations 94
Temperature Difference: Two Fluid Transfer 98
Temperature for Fluid Properties Evaluation - Caloric Temperature 128
Pressure Drop, .p 139
Heat Balance 148
Transfer Area 149
Fouling of Tube Surface 149
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients for Plain or Bare Tubes 186
Approximate Values for Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 194
Film Coefficients with Fluids Outside Tubes Forced Convection 204
Design and Rating of Heat Exchangers 215
Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers 279
Spiral Heat Exchangers 289
Miscellaneous Special Application Heat Transfer Equipment 297
Heat Loss for Bare Process Pipe 308
Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers 323
Rating Method for Air-Cooled Exchangers 345
Two-Phase Flow Patterns 348
Modes of Condensation 356
Boiling and Vaporization 391
Heat Transfer in Jacketed, Agitated Vessels/Kettles 462
Falling Film Liquid Flow in Tubes 471
Batch Heating and Cooling of Fluids 473
Heat Exchanger Design With Computers 486
Maintenance of Heat Exchangers 490
General Symptoms in Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers 491
Case Studies of Heat Exchangers Explosion Hazards Incidents 491
References 496
Bibliography 505
Chapter 16 - Process Integration and Heat Exchanger Networks 510
INTRODUCTION 510
HEAT RECOVERY PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION 518
ENERGY TARGETS 520
THE HEAT RECOVERY PINCH AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE 525
A TARGETING PROCEDURE: THE PROBLEM TABLE ALGORITHM 528
THE GRAND COMPOSITE CURVE 531
PLACING UTILITIES USING THE GRAND COMPOSITE CURVE 531
STREAM MATCHING AT THE PINCH 533
THE PINCH DESIGN APPROACH TO INVENTING A NETWORK 535
HEAT EXCHANGER NETWORK DESIGN (HEN) 535
DESIGN FOR THRESHOLD PROBLEMS 545
HEAT EXCHANGER AREA TARGETS 550
HEN SIMPLIFICATION 563
NUMBER OF SHELLS TARGET 567
IMPLICATIONS FOR HEN DESIGN 569
CAPITAL COST TARGETS 570
ENERGY TARGETING 571
SUPERTARGETING OR .TMIN OPTIMIZATION 572
SUMMARY: NEW HEAT EXCHANGER NETWORK DESIGN 574
TARGETING AND DESIGN FOR CONSTRAINED MATCHES 574
TARGETING BY LINEAR PROGRAMMING 576
HEAT ENGINES AND HEAT PUMPS FOR OPTIMUM INTEGRATION 577
PRESSURE DROP AND HEAT TRANSFER IN PROCESS INTEGRATION 588
TOTAL SITE ANALYSIS 590
APPLICATIONS OF PROCESS INTEGRATION 603
PITFALLS IN PROCESS INTEGRATION 619
CONCLUSIONS 620
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS, CASE STUDIES AND EXAMPLES 624
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 636
SUMMARY AND HEURISTICS 638
NOMENCLATURE 639
REFERENCES 639
BIBLIOGRAPHY 641
Chapter 17 - Refrigeration Systems 642
CAPACITY OF REFRIGERATOR 643
THE CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE 643
PERFORMANCE OF A CARNOT REFRIGERATOR 645
MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION 646
TYPES OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS 650
TERMINOLOGY 650
SELECTION OF A REFRIGERATION SYSTEM FOR A GIVEN TEMPERATURE LEVEL AND HEAT LOAD 650
SYSTEM PRESSURE DROP 653
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION 663
MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION 673
PROCESS PERFORMANCE 675
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE COMPARISON 680
HYDROCARBON REFRIGERANTS 686
REFRIGERATION STAGES 688
HYDROCARBON MIXTURES AND REFRIGERANTS 707
GENERALIZED COMMENTS REGARDING REFRIGERANTS 724
SYSTEM DESIGN AND SELECTION 727
RECEIVER 734
ECONOMIZERS 734
SUCTION GAS SUPERHEAT 734
CASCADE SYSTEMS 737
COMPOUND COMPRESSION SYSTEM 737
COMPARISON OF EFFECT OF SYSTEM CYCLE AND EXPANSION VALVES ON REQUIRED HORSEPOWER 739
CRYOGENICS 739
SIMULATION OF A PROPANE REFRIGERATION LOOP 741
USING HYSYS SIMULATION SOFTWARE PACKAGE 741
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 743
NOMENCLATURE 744
REFERENCES 745
BIBLIOGRAPHY 745
Chapter 18 - Compression Equipment (Including Fans) 748
GENERAL APPLICATION GUIDE 748
SPECIFICATION GUIDES 749
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ANY TYPE OF COMPRESSOR FLOW CONDITIONS 751
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSION 752
COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 790
SOLUTION OF COMPRESSION PROBLEMS USING MOLLIER DIAGRAMS 815
CYLINDER UNLOADING 825
AIR COMPRESSOR SELECTION 832
ENERGY FLOW 833
CONSTANT-T SYSTEM 836
POLYTROPIC SYSTEM 836
CONSTANT S SYSTEM 837
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS 837
COMPRESSOR EQUATIONS IN SI UNITS 887
MULTICOMPONENT GAS STREAMS 893
TREATMENT OF COMPRESSOR FLUIDS 894
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE IN PROCESS SYSTEM 895
EXPANSION TURBINES 909
AXIAL COMPRESSOR 910
LIQUID RING COMPRESSORS 914
ROTARY TWO-IMPELLER (LOBE) BLOWERS AND VACUUM PUMPS 916
ROTARY AXIAL SCREW BLOWER AND VACUUM PUMPS 920
ROTARY SLIDING VANE COMPRESSOR 924
OIL-FLOODED SCREW COMPRESSORS 926
INTEGRALLY GEARED COMPRESSORS 928
OTHER PROCESS-RELATED COMPRESSORS 931
ADVANCES IN COMPRESSOR TECHNOLOGY 932
TROUBLESHOOTING OF CENTRIFUGAL AND RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS 932
FANS 940
BLOWERS AND EXHAUSTERS 985
NOMENCLATURE 992
GREEK SYMBOLS 993
SUBSCRIPTS 993
REFERENCES 993
BIBLIOGRAPHY 996
Chapter 19 - Reciprocating Compression Surge Drums 998
PULSATION DAMPENER OR SURGE DRUM 998
COMMON DESIGN TERMINOLOGY 999
APPLICATIONS 1002
INTERNAL DETAILS 1009
DESIGN METHOD - SURGE DRUMS (NONACOUSTIC) 1009
SINGLE-COMPRESSION CYLINDER 1010
PARALLEL MULTICYLINDER ARRANGEMENT USING COMMON SURGE DRUM 1011
PIPE SIZES FOR SURGE DRUM SYSTEMS [14,15] 1011
FREQUENCY OF PULSATIONS 1015
COMPRESSOR SUCTION AND DISCHARGE DRUMS 1016
DESIGN METHOD - MODIFIED NACA METHOD FOR THE DESIGN OF SUCTION AND DISCHARGE DRUMS 1025
PIPE RESONANCE 1028
MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS: DRUMS/BOTTLES AND PIPING 1029
NOMENCLATURE 1029
GREEK 1032
SUBSCRIPTS 1032
REFERENCES 1032
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1032
Chapter 20 - Mechanical Drivers 1034
ELECTRIC MOTORS 1034
MECHANICAL DRIVE STEAM TURBINES 1084
GAS AND GAS-DIESEL ENGINES 1103
COMBUSTION GAS TURBINE 1105
NOMENCLATURE 1110
REFERENCES 1110
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1112
Chapter 21 - Industrial and Laboratory Reactors - Chemical Reaction Hazards and Process Integration of Reactors 1114
INTRODUCTION 1114
BATCH ISOTHERMAL PERFECTLY STIRRED REACTOR 1115
SEMI-BATCH REACTORS 1116
CONTINUOUS FLOW ISOTHERMAL PERFECTLY STIRRED TANK REACTOR 1118
CONTINUOUS ISOTHERMAL PLUG FLOW (TUBULAR) REACTOR 1119
CONTINUOUS MULTIPHASE REACTORS 1122
FLUIDIZED BED SYSTEM 1125
FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING (FCC) UNIT 1126
DEEP CATALYTIC CRACKING UNIT 1129
BUBBLE COLUMN REACTOR 1133
AGITATOR TYPES FOR DIFFERENT REACTION SYSTEMS 1136
CATALYSTS AND CATALYTIC PROCESSES 1141
DETERMINING LABORATORY REACTORS 1142
RECIRCULATING REACTORS 1150
GUIDELINES FOR SELECTING BATCH PROCESSES 1151
HEAT TRANSFER IN REACTORS 1153
CHEMICAL REACTION HAZARDOUS INCIDENTS 1154
CHEMICAL REACTIVITY WORKSHEET (CRW) 1160
PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR RUNAWAY REACTIONS 1160
SAFETY IN EMERGENCY RELIEF SYSTEMS 1160
PROCESS HAZARD ANALYSIS (PHA) 1169
HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDY (HAZOP) 1171
HAZARD ANALYSIS (HAZAN) 1174
FAULT TREE ANALYSIS 1175
KEY FINDINGS BY US CHEMICAL SAFETY AND HAZARD INVESTIGATION BOARD (CSB) [11] 1176
REACTIVE SYSTEM SCREENING TOOL (RSST) 1177
ENERGY BALANCES ON BATCH REACTORS 1180
THE f FACTOR ACCOUNTING FOR THE HEAT CAPACITIES OF THE BOMB CALORIMETER 1181
ADIABATIC OPERATION OF A BATCH REACTOR 1182
RELIEF VALVE SIZING CALCULATIONS 1186
VENT SIZING EQUATIONS 1193
DISCHARGE SYSTEM 1194
HAZARDOUS PYROPHORIC REACTION 1210
HEAT-INTEGRATED REACTORS 1211
APPROPRIATE PLACEMENT OF REACTORS 1212
REACTOR DESIGN TO IMPROVE HEAT INTEGRATION 1213
GLOSSARY 1217
REFERENCES 1226
USEFUL WEB ADDRESSES 1227
Chapter 22 - Metallurgy - Corrosion 1228
INTRODUCTION 1228
MATERIAL SELECTION 1229
EMBRITTLEMENT 1229
ENVIRONMENTAL CRACKING 1230
CREEP AND CREEP RUPTURE LIFE [3] 1237
MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS IN REFINING AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTION 1238
CORROSION 1241
REFERENCES 1260
Index 1262

Chapter 15

Heat Transfer

The escalating cost of energy in recent years has resulted in increased attention being given to conservation and efficient energy management. Other types of technology, for example, pinch technology (Chapter 16) have been employed in the energy integration of process plants and of heat exchangers, in particular. This has resulted in improved plant performance and reduced operation costs. Heat transfer is perhaps the most important, as well as the most applied, process in refining, gas processing, chemical and petrochemical plants. The economics of plant operation are controlled by the effectiveness of the use and recovery of heat or cold (refrigeration). The service functions of steam, power, refrigeration supply and the like are dictated by how these services or utilities are used within the process to produce an efficient conversion and recovery of heat.

Shell and tube heat exchanger types are widely employed, and generally, they are custom designed for any capacity and operating conditions, including from high vacuum to ultra-high pressures of over 15,000 psig (100 MPa), from cryogenic conditions to high temperatures of ∼2000°F (1100°C), and any temperature and pressure differences between the fluids, limited only by the materials of construction. They can be designed for special operating conditions: heavy fouling, highly viscous fluids, erosion, corrosion, toxicity, multicomponent mixtures, vibration, etc. They are the most versatile exchanger types made from a variety of metals (e.g. Admiralty, copper, alloys, monel, nickel, aluminum, carbon/stainless steel, etc.) and non-metal materials (e.g. graphite, glass and Teflon) and in various sizes from 1 ft2 (0.1 m2) to 106 ft2 (105 m2). They are extensively employed as process heat exchangers in petroleum refining, petrochemicals and chemical industries; as boiler feed water heaters, phase change heat exchangers (e.g. reboilers and condensers), evaporators, steam generators and oil coolers in power plants, in some air conditioning and refrigeration applications; in waste heat recovery applications with heat recovery from liquids and condensing fluids and in environmental control. The tube-side is for corrosive, heavy fouling, scaling, hazardous, high temperature and pressure, and more expensive fluids, while the shell-side is for cleaner, more viscous, lower flow rate, evaporating and condensing fluids. When a gas or vapor is used as an exchanger fluid, it is typically introduced through the shell-side, and viscous liquids, for which the pressure drop for flow through the tubes is high, are introduced on the shell-side.

Generally, shell and tube exchanger types are non-compact exchangers, and the heat-transfer area per unit volume ranges from 15 to 30 ft2/ft3 (50–100 m2/m3). Therefore, they require a considerable amount of space, support structure, capital and installation costs. As a result, they are often replaced with compact heat exchangers (e.g. plate exchangers, spiral plate heat exchangers) in those applications where the operating conditions permit it. For the equivalent cost of the shell and tube exchangers, compact heat exchangers provide high effectiveness and are more efficient in heat (energy) transfer.

Although many excellent references [5,22,36,40,61,70,74,82,286,287,288 and 289] are available, and the technical literature contains important details of good heat transfer design principles and good approaches to equipment design, an unknown factor still enters into every design. This factor is the scale or fouling from the fluids being processed and is wholly dependent on the fluids, their temperature and velocity, and to a certain extent, the nature of the heat-transfer tube surface and its chemical composition. Due to the unknown nature of the assumptions, these fouling factors can markedly affect the design of heat transfer equipment. We shall review this aspect, and others such as the pressure drop, later in the chapter as these could have deleterious effects on the performance of heat exchangers resulting in high operating costs of millions of US dollars per annum. Conventional practice is presented here; however, Kern and Seaton [71] have proposed thermal concepts that may offer new approaches.

The most popular and reliable software packages for the design or rating of shell and tube heat exchangers are:

• BJAC: USA based company

• HEI: Heat Exchange Institute, USA

• HTRI: Heat Transfer Research Institute (www.HTRI.net), USA

• HFTS: Heat Transfer Fluid Flow Services (HTFS programs are part of Aspen Technology’s Aspen Engineering Suite and Honeywell’s UniSim Design Suite)

Generally, the design methods and equations used by these companies and institutes are proprietary and therefore, are not provided in the open literature. Tinker [290,291] published the first detailed stream analysis method for predicting shell and tube heat transfer coefficients and pressure drop, and his model has been used as the basis for the proprietary computer methods developed by these institutes and companies. Tinker’s method is difficult and tedious to apply in manual calculations. However, it has been simplified by Devore [292,293], using standard tolerances for commercial exchangers and only a limited number of baffle cuts. Devore has presented nomographs that facilitate the application of the method in manual calculations. Mueller [294] has further simplified Devore’s method and provides an illustrative example. Bell [295,296] has provided a semi-analytical method based on research programs carried out on shell and tube exchangers at the University of Delaware, where his results accounted for the major bypass and leakage streams.

This text provides the designer with a basis for manually checking the expected equations, coefficients, etc., enabling him/her to accept or reject the computed results. The text provides a basis for completely designing the process heat transfer equipment (except for specialized items such as fired heaters, steam boiler/generators, cryogenic equipment and some other process requirements), and sizing (for mechanical dimensions/details, but not for pressure or strength) the mechanical hardware that will accomplish this function. Additionally, the text presents research studies on fouling in shell and tube heat exchangers, and, in particular, in pre-heat trains in the refining of crude oil. Detailed reviews are supplied with examples, employing developed Microsoft Excel programs for determining heat transfer coefficients in jacketed, agitated vessels and the time required for batch processing involving isothermal and non-isothermal heating and cooling conditions with coils and external heat exchangers, as experienced in various chemical process industries.

Types of Heat Transfer Equipment Terminology

The chemical process industries (CPIs) require heat exchangers to transfer heat from a hot stream to a cold stream. This heat transfer equipment must meet various codes/standards to deal with the thermal, mechanical, operational, installation and maintenance demands of the process. The optimal heat exchanger design should minimize operating costs and maximize product output. Shell and tube heat exchangers (Figures 15-1B–D) consist of a bundle of tubes inside a cylindrical shell. One fluid (the tube-side fluid) flows inside the tubes while the other fluid (the shell-side fluid) flows through the shell and around the tubes. Heat is transferred across the tube wall separating the hot and cold streams. The shell type has a significant effect on the flow configuration and thermal performance of the heat exchangers. Shell and tube heat exchangers use baffles to transport heat to or from tube-side process fluids by directing the shell-side fluid flow. The increased structural support that baffles provide is essential to the tube’s stability, as they prevent the tube from sagging due to its structural weight and also minimize vibration due to cyclic flow forces. Baffles improve heat transfer at the expense of increased pressure drop. Tubesheets seal the ends of the tubes, ensuring separation between the two streams.

The process engineer needs to understand the terminology of the heat transfer equipment manufacturers in order to properly design, specify, evaluate bids and to check drawings of this equipment.

The shell and tube exchanger consists of four major parts:

• Front header – this is where the fluid enters the tube-side of the exchanger. It is sometimes referred to as the stationary header.

• Rear header – this is where the tube-side fluid leaves the exchanger, or where it is returned to the front header in exchangers with multiple tube-side passes.

• Tube bundle – this comprises of the tubes, tube sheets, baffles and tie rods etc. which hold the bundle together.

• Shell – this contains the tube bundle.

The standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) [107] is the only assembly of unfired mechanical standards, including selected design details and Recommended Good Practice and it is used by all reputable exchanger manufacturers in the US and many manufacturers in other countries who supply US plant equipment. These...

Erscheint lt. Verlag	29.11.2014
Sprache	englisch
Themenwelt	Naturwissenschaften ► Chemie ► Technische Chemie
	Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik
	Technik ► Umwelttechnik / Biotechnologie
	Wirtschaft
ISBN-10	0-08-094242-3 / 0080942423
ISBN-13	978-0-08-094242-1 / 9780080942421

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